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by joshuajoby at 07-20-2010, 08:32 PM
Bioinformatics is a field where computational methods are used to unravel mysteries of biology. These computational methods could be anything from homology sequence analyzing to predicting the structure and function of a given sequence. Below are the tools that are mainly used in bioinformatics.

Databases- There are a number of databases available online for DNA, RNA and Proteins. Over the decade, the databases are being updated. The most commonly used databases are GENBANK, EMBL-EBI, and UNIPROT. Separate databases are now available for human, parasite, yeast etc.

Alignment tools-The tools which can be used for homology search and alignment includes BLAST, FASTA, SSearch, GL Search etc. The sequences can be uploaded as a file or to be submitted in fasta format. Multiple sequence alignments can be done by packages like MUSCLE, Clustal-W/X T-Coffee etc.

Functions of protein can be predicted from the conserved sequences of the known protein or the structure of the same which is because those sequences could be resulting from the gene conservation throughout the process of evolution. Tracing back the roots of evolution of these sequences which have similar function, reveals a common ancestor. But ‘moonlighting proteins’, the proteins which have dual functions are exceptions for these types of predictions. For e.g. Phosphoglucose isomerase, an enzyme catalyzing the formation of Fructose -6- phosphate from Glucose -6- phosphate in glycolysis acts as a cytokine outside the cell causing B cell maturation also acts as a growth factor for neurons.

To predict the function, the sequence has to be aligned against sequences in the database for identifying the best match, which could be either a domain or protein. These domains are responsible for the functionality of the protein. Match towards the domain reflects the functional similarity. Match towards an entire protein reflects the close relation between the query and the subject. If prediction is based on the structure, the structural comparison tools can be used.

Protein Analysis- Analysis of protein can be achieved either in the structural or in the functional level; various tools are available for the same, like CATH, SCOP, VAST, PPSEARCH etc. A new tool have been developed called Tempura, it predicts the function and compares the structure. Secondary and tertiary structures could be evaluated using tools like Scansite, Motif Scan, and COILS. Modelers like Swiss-model and Modeller enables the user to create a 2D, 3D model of the protein based on sequences.

Evolutionary analysis – It is an area where bioinformatics tools can be exploited to its core. Phylogenetic trees can be created based on several algorithms, like Maximum Parsimony, Neighbor Joining, UPGMA. Trees can be created using softwares like Phylip, Mega, PAUP etc. There are special programs to evaluate the evolutionary distance of an organism and compare the distances between organisms, based on the similarity and on the algorithm of choice the close related ones are grouped together. For genuineness of the tree bootstrapping can be employed.

The scope of Bioinformatics is huge in modern molecular biology studies. Only certain areas are mentioned here, where there are wide number of online tools as well as software packages available for analyzing the datas.
by NatashaKundi at 07-20-2010, 04:51 AM
Bioinformatics is a combination of molecular biology and computer sciences. It is that technology in which computers are used to gather, store, analyze and integrate biological and genetic information. The need for Bioinformatics arose when a project to determine the sequence of the entire human genome was initiated. This project was called the Human Genome Project. Bioinformatics is very important for the use of genomic information to understand human diseases and to identify new ways for gene-based drug discovery and development. Therefore, many universities, government institutions and pharmaceutical companies have come forward to form bioinformatics groups to do research related to computational biology so that better ways are used to make processes more efficient and less time consuming.

Application of Bioinformatics:


Bioinformatics in Proteomics

Proteomics is a branch of biotechnology that deals with the techniques of molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics to analyze the structure, function, and interactions of the proteins produced by the genes of a particular cell, tissue, or organism. This technology is being improved continuously and new tactics are being introduced. In the current day and age it is possible to acquire the proteome data. Bioinformatics makes it easier to come up with new algorithms to handle large and heterogeneous data sets to improve the processes. To date, algorithms for image analysis of 2D gels have been developed. In case of mass spectroscopy, data analysis algorithms for peptide mass fingerprinting and peptide fragmentation fingerprinting have been developed.

Bioinformatics and Genomics

Genomics is the study of complex sets of genes, their expression and the most vital role they play in biology. The most important application of bioinformatics in genomics is the Human Genome Project through which more than 30,000 genes have been identified and secured through the sequencing of chemical base pairs which make up the DNA. It has thus enabled us to obtain necessary knowledge as to how these genes inter-relate and what functions they perform. Cures for many diseases are being discovered through this inter-relation where bioinformatics, no doubt, plays a pivotal role.

Bioinformatics and Transcriptiomics

Transcriptiomics deals with the study of messenger RNA molecules produced in an individual or population of a particular cell type. It is also referred to as Expression Profiling in which the expression level of mRNA, in a given cell population, is determined through DNA microarray technology. Bioinformatics is thus used for transcriptome analysis where mRNA expressions levels can be determined so as to see how a certain disease, like cancer, can be cured.

Parallel to the above mentioned fields, Bioinformatics is also being used in;
Molecular medicine, Personalised medicine, Preventative medicine, Gene therapy, Drug development, Microbial genome applications, Waste cleanup, Climate change Studies, Alternative energy sources, Biotechnology, Antibiotic resistance, Forensic analysis of microbes, Bio-weapon creation, Evolutionary studies, Crop improvement, Insect resistance, Improve nutritional quality, Development of Drought resistance varieties, Veterinary Science etc which are all quite debatable in their own capacity and will be discussed in further detail.
by Charles at 07-19-2010, 05:28 AM
I am trying to compile a list of best ranked Biotech Schools/Colleges for studying Bachelors/Masters in United States of America. This is just a start, I need some help to make this list more comprehensive.

- University of California - San Francisco
- University of Pennsylvania
- University of California - San Diego
- Johns Hopkins University
- Washington University - St. Louis
- University of Washington
- University of California - Los Angeles
- Yale University
- Stanford University
- Rockefeller University
- University of Wisconsin - Madison
- Baylor College of Medicine
- Purdue - West Lafayette, Indiana.
- Oregon State University - Corvallis
- Northwestern University - Evanston, IL
- MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology

What do you think .. ?

----------- Further additions on suggestions --------------

-Rutgers University - New Jersey
by NatashaKundi at 07-18-2010, 08:35 PM
A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene. Sometimes mutations can be useful but mostly they are harmful as changes in DNA can change the way a cell behaves. As genes are a set of hereditary materials that contain instructions necessary for a cell to work so if some of these instructions go wrong the cell may not know how to function.

Following video very nicely explains the CONCEPT OF MUTATION (WHAT IS A MUTATION?), Significance of Mutation and Causes of Mutation:


Mutations can be inherited which means the mutated genetic code can be passed on to the next generations. For example heart disease, diabetes, stroke or high blood pressure, run in the family. If parents suffered from them, their children may also develop them. Ten million men in the U.S. are colour blind but less than 600,000 American women have the same disability. That's because this mutation is located on the X-chromosome. Men only have one X-chromosome, so that one is enough to induce the condition, but women have two X chromosomes, and they require the mutation in double set to experience the condition.

Mutations can also be acquired depending on what sort of environment a person lives in as some environmental agents can damage the DNA or when mistakes occur during cell division. For example radiations released during the nuclear disasters in Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Chernobyl are still affecting and causing mutations in the genetic makeup of the people living in those areas. Moreover, different types of cancers are also caused by mutations.

Types of Mutation:

Substitution

A substitution is a mutation in which there is an exchange between two bases (i.e. a change in a single "chemical letter" such as switching a T to a C). Such a substitution could change a codon to one that encodes a different amino acid and cause a change in the protein produced. Sometimes substitutions may not effects the protein structure, such mutations are called silent mutations and sometimes they may change an amino-acid-coding codon to a single "stop" codon and cause an incomplete protein. This can seriously affect the protein structure which may completely change the organism.

Example of Substitution Mutation: Sickle Cell Anaemia is caused by substitution mutation, where in codon (GAG mutates to --> GTG) and leads to (Glu --> Val) change.


Insertion

Insertions are mutations in which extra base pairs are inserted into a new place in the DNA. The number of base pairs inserted can range from one to thousands!

Example of Insertion Mutation: Huntington's disease and the fragile X syndrome are examples of insertion mutation wherein trinucleotide repeats are inserted into the DNA sequence leading to these diseases.

Deletions

Deletions are mutations in which a section of DNA is lost, or deleted. The number of base pairs deleted can again range from one to thousands!
Insertions and Deletion mutations are often together dubbed as INDELS.


Example of Deletion Mutation: 22q11.2 deletion syndrome is caused by the deletion of some bases of chromosome 22. This disease is characterized by cleft palate, heart defects, autoimmune disorders etc.

Frameshift

Protein-coding DNA is divided into codons which are three bases long, insertions and deletions in these codons can completely change a gene so its message cannot be decoded correctly. Such mutations are called frameshift mutations. For example, consider the sentence, "The cat ate her rat." Each word represents a codon. If we delete the first letter and read the sentence in the same way, it doesn't make sense. Similarly if the codons become jumbled up, they would no longer make any sense, in such frameshifts, a similar error occurs at the DNA level, where the codons cannot be parsed correctly. This usually gives rise to truncated proteins that are as useless as "rca tet hce tee" is uninformative.

Examples of Frameshif Mutation:
Tay-Sachs Disease, Cancers of many types, Crohn's Disease, cystic fibrosis have been associated with Frameshift Mutation.

Following Video describes the various types of mutations in a very nice way:

by NatashaKundi at 07-16-2010, 10:01 AM
What is Cloning?
It is a process by which an identical copy of DNA is produced. It is used to reproduce type specific cells such as an individual organism like Dolly Sheep. Unlike normal reproduction, cloning requires a single parent. A few types of plants have been cloned in the course of many years but cloning of animals especially humans is an ethical issue. Cloning enables illnesses to be cured and to make plants healthier.

Cloning is done by using a circular DNA as a carrier in which a foreign piece of DNA is put. Special genetic information is held within this foreign piece of DNA. The circular DNA is called a vector which acts as a means of transport. The vector then replicates and is then transferred from one living organism to another. This living organism is called a host as its body acts as a temporary home for this DNA and its vector. The new circular DNA with the foreign piece is called a clone which is different from the parental vector.

Nuclear Transfer is a type of cloning that involves transfer of nucleus from a somatic cell (e.g. blood cell, heart cell) to an egg cell. The nucleus of the somatic cell is removed by a micropipette and injected into an enucleated oocyte, which is an unfertilized cell. The nucleus is then given an electric shock so as to fuse with the cytoplasm. It then divides until it becomes an embryo and is then implanted into a surrogate thus giving rise to an identical organism.

Artificial Twinning is also a type of cloning in which an embryo is artificially divided into two or more embryos. An egg is fertilized by sperm. In the early stages of its formation, the embryo is split into two or more embryos which are then left to grow in a surrogate. The offspring thus produced are identical.

Before the birth of Dolly Sheep, an experiment was performed on frog cells. Nucleus from a frog’s gut cell was injected into an enucleated oocyte. The cell began to divide until an embryo was formed thus resulting in tadpoles. Earlier on, this technique only worked on frogs. Scientists could not clone mammals. Another drawback was that the tadpoles never grew into frogs; they died at a very early stage.

After a lot of experimentation, scientists discovered that using a quiescent (undividable) cell instead of a fast dividing cell will prove helpful in cloning of mammals. Therefore they started an experiment on sheep. The method used was Nuclear Transfer. They took a cell from the mammary glands of a Finn Dorset breed of sheep, removed the nucleus and injected it into a Blackface ewe breed. An electric pulse was then used to fuse the nucleus with the cytoplasm of the cell. This fused cell was then transferred into a Blackface ewe. This process was repeated 276 times and after 148 days, Dolly Sheep was born on 5th July 1996. This success enabled scientists to clone domestic animals such as cows, horses, bulls etc. After being bred with a Welsh Mountain ram, Dolly gave birth to six lambs. She then died at the age of six as she developed lung diseases and arthritis.
by rhandle at 07-13-2010, 05:59 PM
Greetings,

I have few questions regarding a career in biotech. I would be coming to this industry with a background in medicine. While I've been in clinical practice for over 10 years, I have just begun MBA studies and have recently come to develop an interest in the coupling of the business and scientific aspects of this career path. After reading the bios of many top CEOs and COOs in this field it seems to be both a fascinating and lucrative career path...many of them making 7 figure incomes.

1) How fast is this career trajectory for someone who would enter the field with advanced degrees in medicine, biotechnology, and business, but with little to no experience in the field? What should my beginning salary expectations be? 5 and 10 salary projections? etc...

2) I live in California, near some heavy hitters, i.e., Advanced Bionics, Genentec, Amgen, Vivus and others. Which of these companies should I consider? What are some other companies I should look at...I'm open to moving after I complete the MBA.

3) In terms of career trajectory, would I be better served coming on board a burgeoning company (private, non yet traded) wherein experienced pros have decided to begin their own startup? Or would I be better off keeping it safe by sticking with one of the more established companies and working my way up the ranks there?

Any insight from insiders in the trenches would be greatly appreciated!

kindest regards!
by joshuajoby at 07-11-2010, 11:24 PM
Being 71 percent of the earth surface covered by ocean, the environmental changes are echoed greater in marine organisms. Marine world encompass a variety of lifeforms like plankton, animals, corals and reefs. Planktons consists of Phytoplankyon and Zooplankton. Various factors influence the extermination of these marine organisms, among them the most threatening are the below.

Oil spills - Oil spills have become continuing episodes since 1980s. The oil spills around the world have costed billions of marine lives. It has become one of the strongest factors responsible for the endangerment of the marine inhabitants. The percentages of endangered, not recovered species due to the oil spills are ten times greater than the recovered. There are 620 marine species population red listed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature which could be Extinct, Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. The disaster levels of Gulf of Mexico oil spill are yet to be determined.

Global Warming - As the basic block of aquatic life phytoplankton play a large role. The rise in temperature in the oceanic surface creates density variation in the system, hence the nutrient rich layer sinks leaving the denser phytoplankton above. This leads the phytoplankton nutrient deprived, which in turn affects the photosynthesis.

Ozone layer depletion
- The ultraviolet rays could seriously affect the survival of the phytoplankton. The extinction of the primary member of the food chain could result in changes in rest of the food chain.

According to a recent study by Peter Muller 38 fishes were found in the Arctic island for the first time, among them ten of them are yet to be identified. The climate changes could be one of the reasons for migration of the species.

In a situation where environmental factors itself acts suicidal e.g. Global warming, Climate changes etc. Human contribution adds up to the factors that lead the marine ecosystem to danger e.g. Pollution, Over fishing etc. The dolphin massacre in Japan is the best example of human atrocity. It is time to realize that one should protect the nature for protecting oneself from tomorrow’s awaiting health hazards.

The scope of Biotechnology is extended to bioremediation. Oleophilic bacteria are group of oil metabolizing bacteria. Among the ‘Oil Eating Bacteria’ Pseudomonas putida, a gram negative rod bacterium is known for its bioremedial property. It is patented by Anand Chakraborthy, the organism was genetically engineered so that it do not produce any disastrous side effects or by- products. Today, a number of genetically modified variants are available for P.putida. Another oil eating bacteria, Alcanivorax borkumensis is a gram negative rod-shaped bacterium known for its property to break down the alkanes and to use them as its source of energy.

The limitations in using these organisms on oil leakage are the accumulation of these organisms in the sea, oxygen depletion and over consumption of the nutrients might finally result in its unavailability to the inhabitants. George Huber and his colleagues created ‘Green Petrol’, petrol from plants. Biofuels could an extend minimize disasters like oil spillage. Let us put our efforts together to conserve the nature and its inhabitants.
by Charles at 07-04-2010, 07:14 AM
Future of biotechnology looks very bright. I feel that this decade belongs to biotechnology, in the same way the last 2 decades have belonged to Computer-IT-Programming.

What do you guys/gals think?


Following is the opinion on Future of Biotechnology, by Sunil Nagpal


Biotechnology has already become an exceptional field of research and industrial application. In fact, it has always been there, it's just that today, when human kind is suffering from myriad of life-threatening diseases, innumerable challenges on environmental depletion, plethora of hitbacks by various pandemics and epidemics; Biotechnology has emerged as the only savior; and hence the "field that actually does magics".
The future of this field is thus very bright!
  • Talk about "New Drugs/Medicines/Vaccines", Biotechnology is at work!
  • Talk about "Artificial organs" Biotechnology is at work!
  • Talk about "DNA analysis: be it for forensic research or for exploratory purposes", Biotechnology is at work!
  • Talk about "Food Production and ways to enhance productivity", Biotechnology is at work!
  • Talk about "New Diagnostic Equipment", Biotechnology is at work!
  • Talk about "Environment friendly products and services", Biotechnology is at work!
  • Talk about "Nutrient supplements", Biotechnology is at work!
  • Talk about "New Apps being developed for various smart phones to probe physiological parameters", Biotechnology is at work even there!!

One may talk about "any" living being linked product/service/activity, you will end up finding "A Biotechnological Connection" somewhere, everywhere!




Found a very good video - BBC Biotechnology Video (https://dotsub.com/view/6671a402-a59a-47...cad03c525e)
by Charles at 07-03-2010, 06:58 AM
Genetic engineering has given us opportunity to manipulate genes for getting our desired plants or animals. With the advent of modern genetic engineering we have overcome various problems and it has given us transgenic plants that contain our desired characteristics. Transgenic plants are plants which have a single or multiple genes transferred from a different species. In the natural processes DNA from another species can be integrated into a plant's genome. The term "transgenic plants" refers to plants which are created in a laboratory using recombinant DNA technology. The aim of creating transgenic plants is to design plants which have specific characteristics by using artificial insertion technique of genes from other species.

Protoplast fusion, embryo rescue or mutagenesis is the in vitro techniques used by Classical plant breeders to generate diversity and produce plants which would not ordinarily exist in nature. In the traditional breeding method to generate plants with DNA from two species by non-recombinant methods are more familiar and serve important roles in agriculture than other. It can protect crops from pests and help land and water to be used more efficiently. There are many methods for introducing genes into plants. Plant cells are infected with plasmids as vectors carrying the desired gene from another cell. Microscopic pellets containing the gene are blasted directly into the cell. Somatic tissues of plants can be transformed in the laboratory with the desired gene.

The transgene will be incorporated into the pollen and eggs which will pass on to the next generation. Transgenic plants have been frequently developed for the following reason: disease resistance, longer shelf life, herbicide resistance, non-biological stress resistances, pest resistance and nutritional improvement . Transgenic plants have major role in ecosystems which is one of the greatest concern. Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium which is pathogenic for a number of insect pests. It can produce toxin protein. The toxin protein producing gene can be introduced into the genome of the plant through recombinant DNA methods in the plant cell. The plant can protect insect pests.

Resistance gene provides protection against plant viruses from another plant have been directly introduced into crop plants such as tobacco, tomatoes, and potatoes through r DNA technology. During rice milling husk is removed which is the source of Beta-carotene. Recently researchers have become successful in incorporating three trans-genes into rice that enabled the plants to manufacture beta-carotene in their endosperm.

2,4-D is the most common chemical for killing weed used in the field but it is not environmentally friendly. In that case resistance gene from newer herbicide have been incorporated into some crop plants that enables them to bloom even when exposed to the weed killer. Salt tolerance can be engineered into crops which are intolerant of saline soils. As an example transgenic tomato where trans-gene is highly expressed sodium/proton anti-proton pump that keep apart excess sodium in the vacuole of leaf cells. So Genetic engineering plays pivotal role in developing and boost up the variety of plant. Here is a caution about the proper manipulation of gene. Without proper manipulation of gene genetic engineering will be bane, not boon for the people.
by Jessica at 07-03-2010, 06:57 AM
Recombinant DNA (rDNa) technology is known as a field of molecular biology by which new synthetic molecules are produced through editing DNA. Synthetic molecules are known as chimeras. This is a procedure in which cutting, pasting, and copying DNA dates back to Arthur Kornberg's successful replication of viral DNA in a breakthrough which is served as a proof-of-concept for cloning. After the discovery of restriction enzymes by the Swiss biochemist Werner Arber in bacteria. Geneticists have learned how to cut DNA molecules from Arber and soon to follow was the understanding that ligase could be used to "glue" them together in human history these two achievements allowed Man to "play god" for the first time by launching rDNA technology. Now a day’s cloning is a common term which is done by rDNA technology.

There are three basic methods by which rDNA molecule can be produced- Transformation, Non-Bacterial Transformation, and Phage Introduction. However, no matter which method is used, the goal is to introduce recombinant genes into a host cell along with expression factor, so that the host cell can express protein of interest. It needs to "turn off" the signals that tell a host cell to destroy or degrade the genes being introduced in every case.

Paul Berg, won the Nobel Prize in 1980 for his outstanding work in rDNA research, he did some potentially dangerous experiments. As a result, public policy could deal with the dilemmas posed by new technological possibilities. In 1975, at the Asilomar Conference the leading recombinant DNA specialists came together and gave their opinion about the need for safeguards to prevent any health crises or ecological disasters. They also ensure the public that their research would proceed with caution.

The collaboration between Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1972 and founding of the first company to work with rDNA in its drug development labs, Genetech was another milestone in the development of recombinant DNA. Scientists were able to replicate human growth hormone somatostain in 1978. Since then, host of other drugs like Epogen and Herceptin have been developed by r DNA research.

There are some controversial views about use of rDNA technology. Some think that this is not ethically legal, whereas others think that it is not environmentally friendly. But scientists say that recombinant DNA research is really a promising field which is too much ambitious. Now a day’s transgenic plants, transgenic animal, different drugs, heterologus gene expression etc. are being done through rDNA technology. By producing the targeted medicines and supplying patients with less toxic pharmaceuticals it will play an important role in preventing genetic disease in future. As researchers find ways to optimize the genetic codes of plants and animals to resist disease it will also impact agriculture and livestock. By using recombinant DNA it is possible to produce GM food which plays an important role to fulfill our demand for food. So rDNA technology has introduced a new era in the world of biotechnology.
by Charles at 07-03-2010, 06:56 AM
A mushroom is the spore bearing, fleshy fruiting body produced on its food source or the ground of the soil. Mushroom is one type of fungus. They are the fungus of the group of Basidiomycota and Agaricomycetes. Basically their fruiting body has three parts. They have a stem like stripe, a cap like pileus and gills underside of the cap where spores are found. But there are many mushrooms without gills or stripe or cap. Those are the parts of the standard physiology of the mushroom. Some mushrooms have leathery fruiting body in place of fleshy fruiting body. There are different types of nomenclature of mushrooms such as stinkhorn, puffball, morel or agarics etc.

Basidiomycetes are gilled and their spores are called Basidiospores. Those spores are just like the fine powders of rain in the gills released from the underside of the cap. Basidiospores remain in the Basidia which is located in the gills under the cap. If these are cut off a powdery spores will be found. The color of the powdery spores is the signs of the classification of mushroom. They may be black, brown, purple brown, pink, cream or yellow in color. But they are very little in blue, red or green.

In modern time molecular identification is most common and reliable rather than morphological identification. Some physiological traits are also developed for classification of the mushrooms such as the presence of juices upon breaking, odors, bruising reactions, tastes, habitat, shades of color and season etc. but mushrooms are grown up from a no indefinable structure to a specific structure with some identifiable characteristics. Molecular identification is better than the time consuming physiological identification.

Some mushrooms are edible. They can be used in cooking vegetables. The foods containing mushrooms are tasty and popular, they have high nutrient values with vitamins such as riboflavin, biotin, niacin, cobalamins, ascorbic acid and thiamine etc. they are important source of vitamin D. Mushrooms are used to prevent the exposure of ultra violate ray. Mushrooms also contain some minerals such as potassium, selenium, phosphorus etc. so mushrooms are the source of food containing vitamins, minerals and other nutrients.

Most mushrooms are found in the supermarket by the consumers. They are now commercially cultivated vegetables. The most common edible mushroom is Agaricus bisporus. There are different varieties of this mushroom which are grown for commercial purposes. They should be grown in sterilized and controlled environment to ensure their safety.

There are also some poisonous mushrooms which are very much harmful for human body. Cooking of those mushrooms is strictly ignored. The most famous edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus has some carcinogens named hydrazines. But they are damaged by applying favorable heat during cooking. There are no physiological traits by which edible and non edible mushrooms can be identified. So care must be taken to accept mushrooms as food. Otherwise allergic reactions or anaphylactic shock may occur due to mushroom consumption. Mushrooms are now treated as economic food due to low cost of cultivation in almost every country. Mushroom may be the new means of currency. But measures and safety must be ensured for it.
by Charles at 07-03-2010, 06:55 AM
Biotechnology was first proposed by Karl Ereky, a Hungarian scientist in 1919. Biotechnology is the multidisciplinary study where biological systems are manipulated to develop products for human welfare. This multidisciplinary subject is now involved in medical purposes. Biotechnology develops a collection of processes or techniques using biological systems to innovate new products and services in medical science. Those techniques are applied into industry to produce medical related products on industrial scale. Those industries are called bioindustries.

Microorganisms and enzymes related biotechnology is called conventional biotechnology. Conventional biotechnology has been used to prepare and preserve medically used products. Now this is the time of advanced biotechnology. Recombinant DNA technology, Genomics project etc. are the parts of modern advanced biotechnology. Those technologies are introduced to develop the conventional biotechnology.

Biotechnology plays important role for improving animal and human health. Biotechnologists have taken steps to alleviate major health threats in developing countries such as malaria. AIDS, tuberculosis etc. Effective drugs, vaccines and diagnostic tools are released and developed almost every day for mankind. More feed and food contain increased amount of nutrients and are supplied in the developing poor countries to prevent malnutrition. Bioindustries are the essential parts of biotechnology to expand the production of the products of biotechnology to fulfill the world population’s increasing need. The bioeconomy is now almost depending on the bioindustries.

There are two parts of bioindustries. One part is bio resource industries including crop production, forestry, horticulture, livestock etc development, in one word resource development to produce new products. Another part of bio industry is to utilize bio resource industries such as food, fiber and energy processing to produce pharmaceutical products. High industrial productivity is the greatest challenge for the development of mankind. This is the responsibility of the technologically sound and economically developed countries. Of course this is the largest change of our global economy where 96% of people are involved in biotechnological works and 88% people are working in biotechnological firm in developing countries. Biotechnological market is controlled by United States, Britain, Canada and many European countries such as Sweden, Germany, and Norway etc.

Some innovations discovered by the medical biotechnology are discussed. Asthmatic inhaler devices are developed for the patients suffering from asthma. Those inhalers regulate asthma by giving corticosteroids to the lungs whenever needed. Articular cartilage which controls the movements of the joints is advanced to prevent them from being damaged. Mechanical heart transplant is one of the most useful things for the patients suffering from severe heart diseases.

Antibody recruiting molecules control the immune system of the body to protect themselves from HIV and cancer. They are very much promising antibody molecules. Most smokers know the negative effect of smoking better than the nonsmokers. But they cannot give up smoking because of addiction. New vaccines are developed to enhance will power to give up smoking. The devastating event of pregnancy is stillbirth. New devices are produced to detect the signs of stillbirth that cannot be detected by normal testing systems. Rheos high blood pressure therapy is applied to individuals to prevent drug resistant hypertension. Radiation may increase the risk of cancer. So new radiation devices are introduced which are free from those risks. Medical science is dominated by those types of innovations which are the gifts of medical biotechnology.
by Jessica at 07-03-2010, 06:53 AM
The genes present inside a body determines all the traits of a respective organism, animal or plant. Genetic engineering deals with the genes and its manipulation for the development and well being of that living being. Over the years it has developed new technologies for the humans to win over the diseases, produce more crops and meet up their ever rising demands.

Cloning and human genome project has demonstrated the real power of genetic engineering. Genetic engineers are waiting for that day when just by using our genome they will be able to tell which diseases we are suffering from within seconds. Using gene therapy we will have a chance to heal damaged genes. In fact many autoimmune diseases and heart diseases have been treated using gene therapy. Disease like cystic fibrosis, ALS and Huntington’s disease are caused by gene damage can also be cured. Gene therapy is done by inserting the new gene or by correcting the damaged gene directly.

Insulin and vaccine production through recombinant DNA technology has shown a ray of hope to humans. Bio-engineered products play pivotal role in solving various diseases as well as it helps in disease prevention. Moreover Genetic engineering has lessened the cost of products. Pregnant women are getting support from genetic engineering by screening the genetic defects directly in their fetus. These days genetic engineering has been searching the path for correcting the defects of a baby even before the delivery.

In the field of agriculture, genetic engineering has played crucial role in developing salt tolerant, pest and herbicide resistant variety and hybrid and hybrid variety. With the advancement of modern Agricultural Biotechnology and genetic engineering, we are getting more yield from our crops and is ensuring food safety. Herbicide and pesticide resistant variety ensures us healthy meal as no pesticide or herbicide is needed in this variety.

There are many environmental benefits too, Bioremediation has upgraded the waste management system that is environmental friendly and does not cause harm like the chemical remediation. In the water recycling plant microbes are used and we are getting pure water that does not cause any health hazard. So genetic engineering has a huge role in the modern civilization. In the near future the world will extensively use genetic engineering and I have no doubt about it.
by Charles at 07-03-2010, 06:51 AM
Gene mapping is a process to identify the relative location of the genes in a chromosome. When genome is discovered gene mapping is not known. DNA sequencing is the first step of gene mapping. There are actually two types of gene mapping. They are genetic mapping and physical mapping. Genetic mapping is that type of mapping where two genes are located near each other in a definite position. This specific position is determined by linkage system. Classical techniques are involved to do this mapping such as breeding experiments or pedigree analysis.

At first accurate DNA sequencing is done. Small fragments are separated by small tags amongst the strains. Those may be DNA cutting enzymes or genetic markers such as PCR products. Physical mapping is that type of mapping where relative positions of the genes of a chromosome are evaluated by any known process. The first step of this mapping is to cut DNA into small fragments by restriction enzymes DNA fragments are separated according to their size by applying electrophoresis technique. The pattern of the result from electrophoresis tells the relative positions of genes, this is done by accurate calculation. Both types of Gene mapping are different according to their process of investigation but they are related in the same context.

Micro restriction is one type of physical mapping system. Here high molecular weight DNA is cut by low restriction sites containing restriction enzymes. This is one of the alternative processes of DNA sequencing. The advantage of this alternative process is to determine the overlapping of DNA clones without sequencing the complete DNA. At first the mapping is discovered then the clones are used as reference to identify the position of them located in a large genome. This is the more efficient system of gene mapping. In situ hybridization is another type of gene mapping system. This is a independent process of DNA sequencing.

The locations between two genes are called genetic loci. If two of the loci of a chromosome have gone through the next generation, those are called linked two loci of two different genes and cannot be linked together because of independent assortment. It is very important to know the linking process because linkage systems are utilized to create a proper genetic mapping.

Genetic diseases can be identified by gene mapping. Expected positions of the genes can be changed or manipulated automatically by genetic diseases. These diseases are investigated by fine mapping of the genes of the chromosomes. These mechanisms are utilized to investigate large disease manifestation or to identify population based genetic associations. The major goal of gene mapping is to clone the genes of a chromosome. Cloning of the genes, DNA sequencing and study of gene products are the steps to investigate the disease genes. Albino child are very common problems in all societies. If we can identify the genes responsible for the albino diseases, we can take different genetic steps to prevent this. Genetic diseases are prevented to transmit from one generation to next generation rather than to cure the diseases.
by Charles at 07-03-2010, 06:50 AM
The chemical structure of every DNA seems to be the same for every parson. DNA is furnished by four types of base named adenine guanine, thiamin and cytosine. The arrangement of these four bases is different to everybody. They remain in pair form. Adenine pairs with thiamine and guanine pairs with cytosine. There are millions of base pairing to every person but all are arranged in different sequence to one another. This difference is utilized in the processing of DNA fingerprinting. Every person has different DNA sequence identity. One can be recognized by their rare DNA identity. But this is a time killing work to do manually. So this mechanism is developed by some electronic devices to make it in an easier way. Scientists are successful to find out some DNA sequences which are same between an individual and their relatives. They have also found out some DNA sequences that vary from individual to individual. This identification system is called DNA fingerprinting.

An individual inherits some specific arrangement of base pairing from his or her mother and father. Those are called VNTR pattern. Fathers identification is now possible by VNTR pattern between parent and child. This is a reliable process of father identification that is recognized around the world. Fathers identification is needed to determine the biological parenthood, for adoption process, to determine real father of the child and confirming the nationality during making passport or any other work.

Skin, hair, blood etc are collected to identify the real criminal from the place where criminal act has occurred. The VNTR patterns collected from the sample is tried to match with people that are under suspicion for that crime. If it is matched then the criminal will be identified. It is widely used in the criminal investigation process

Nothing is 100% guaranteed like DNA fingerprinting in this modern world. The probability of matching VNTR pattern between two individual is very much rare as it may occur in one person within twenty billion of people. VNTRs are the result of genetic heritability. They are not almost same in a human community. They can be different on the basis of genetic background, but not the basis of individual’s community. VNTRs are different from one racial line to another racial line. Physiology and behavior of one racial line are frequently same than other racial lines. Physiology and behavior are controlled by the genetic activities. So VNTRs are almost same amongst the members of Hispanics but different from the members of Caucasians or African Americans.

Some technical problems are responsible for any probabilities in DNA fingerprinting such as error in probing and hybridization process. DNA fingerprinting loses its reliabilities by those technical problems. Nobody wants to punish the innocent and to reward the guilty people. So the steps of DNA fingerprinting must be done repeatedly to assure the correct result.

99.9% DNA sequences of the human are indifferent but only 0.1% DNA sequences are varied from each other. Forensic scientists find out those small amount of difference and relations of the DNA sequences to identify a human.
by Charles at 07-03-2010, 06:47 AM
The term cellular therapy refers to various procedures by which processed tissue from animal embryos, fetuses or organs is injected or taken orally. It is also known as cell therapy, glandular therapy ,cellular suspension, fresh cell therapy, siccacell therapy, organotherapy and embryonic cell therapy. Products collected from specific organs or tissues which are corresponded with the damaged or unhealthy organs or tissues of the recipient. Advocates said that the recipient’s body can automatically transport the injected cells to the organ which is targeted where they supposedly strengthen them and regenerate their structure. The organs and glands which are used in cell treatment include - thyroid, pituitary, adrenals, thymus, spleen, kidney, pancreas, ovary, testis, heart and parotid. It is possible to give different cell or cell extract simultaneously.

At first cellular therapy occurred in 1912 when German physicians attempted to treat hypothyroid children with thyroid cells. Cellular therapy was developed by Paul Niehans, MD in early 1930 that is a Swiss physician known as the father of cell therapy. Another notorious practitioner was John R. Brinkley who is commonly known as the goat gland doctor. He reportedly did 16000 operations by which he implemented men with tissue from the testicles of young goats.

In Tijuana, Mexico Wolfram Kühnau, MD, an associate of Dr. Niehans used cellular therapy to treat cancer patients in 1970. It is also claimed to build the immune system and help patients with Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, AIDS, Down's syndrome and various other diseases.

James L. Wilson, a naturopath has been promoting the use of products which are made from bovine mesenchymal cells. He said that the cells have the ability for migrating to any tissue for repairing and once at the site, take on the characteristics of the healthy cell it associates with. According to Wilson a mesenchymal product can be administered under the tongue. These studies have been done mainly in laboratory preparations -- in which mesenchymal stem cells demonstrate reparative ability when it is placed directly in contact with certain tissues. But it is idoic to believe that they are able to migrate to where they are needed in the body. Moreover, when these cells are taken orally they get digested and can exert no significant effect on body function.

The theory behind cellular therapy is senseless. The American Cancer Society has strongly advised people not to seek it. Under ordinary circumstances, cells from the organs of one species cannot replace the cells from the organs of other species. When foreign proteins are injected, the immune system attacks them. In addition, injections of animal cells can spread viral disease and trigger severe allergic reactions. When taken by mouth, animal cells are digested and are not absorbed intact into the body.

Though cell therapy is a modern way of treatment it has some demerits also. Cell therapy is based on senseless theory. The American Cancer Society has strongly advised people not to use it. Under ordinary circumstances cells collected from organ of one species cannot transfer the cells from the organs of other species. After injecting foreign protein the immune system attacks them. There is also risk in case of animal cell because they spread viral disease and causes many allergic reactions. When taken by mouth, animal cells are digested and are not absorbed intact into the body.
by Charles at 07-03-2010, 06:45 AM
What is Biometric passport? A biometric passport is an electronic passport containing biometric information about the travelers who are traveling from one country to another country. It is also called e passport because the processing and authenticated identification of the travelers are done by the help of internet. This passport introduces a new path of technology. It looks very attractive and smart. It contains a microprocessor chip or computer chip and an antenna located in the back or front side of the passport. Both are included in the passport to maintain communication and power supply. Documentation of the document and characterization of the chip are done by international civil aviation organization. Critical information of the passport is stored in the chip and printed out in the data page of the passport. It is controlled electronically. So there is no way to copy or forge the passport in a wrong way if all the safety mechanisms are fully activated.

There are actually three types of identification reports which are included in the passport. They are DNA fingerprint recognition, facial recognition, and iris recognition. Retinal scan is also involved with this process. That information is stored in the contact less chip of the passport. It has 32 kilobytes storage capacity to store that information. But passport card of USA is not this type of biometric passport. This passport is used in a small number of nations. The four basic parts of this contact less smart biometric passport are data access control system, a microprocessor chip, communication security and other programmes to manage many functions of the passport.

Biometric passports are furnished by their own security system. This security system work to detect and avoid threat. Non traceable random chip numbers are included in the chip electronically. So every passport has random identification number. When a reader gives the date of birth, the document number and the expiry date, these are derived to a key number into the machine readable zone which shows the extra information on the screen. In this process a reader can read the chip. This work is controlled by basic access control. Passive authentication or PA regulates any manipulation in the chip data. So PA is a mandatory matter for a biometric passport. Any copy of the biometric passport is detected by active authentication or AA. A private key is added to AA of every biometric passport which cannot be copied. Extended access control system controls the legality of both the reader and the chip. Shielding of the chip prevents the unauthorized reading of the chip. A thin metal cover is added to shield the passport to prevent unauthorized reading.

Privacy makers of many countries protest about the smaller amount of information included in the biometric passport. Their main objection is that biometric passport is working in wireless card system. So its vulnerability is a concern for them. An ID number is sufficient to get their information without their physical attendance. If in any way the security system collapses, it cannot be worked in a safe way.

Everything in the world has its positive and negative sides. Our expectation is to overcome the negative aspect in biometric passport.
by Jessica at 07-03-2010, 06:41 AM
In this era we all are concerned about the environmental pollution as the world climate is getting worse day by day. Today one of the big challenges is to introduce environmentally friendly material in every sector of our life. Traditional plastics pose serious threat to our environment. So now it is the time to reject it and adopt environmentally safe biodegradable plastic. Biotechnology has given us this ultimate gift to save our environment.

Bioplastics are decomposable in natural aerobic (composting) and anaerobic (landfill) conditions. This biodegradation occurs by enabling microorganism in the environment to metabolize the molecular structure of plastic films in order to produce inert humus like material which is safe to environment. The application of bio-active compounds with swelling agents ensures that, when combined with heat and moisture, they will expand the molecular structure of plastic and the bio-active compounds will be metabolized as well as the plastic will be neutralized.

Bioplastics are of various types like starch based plastic which constitute about 50 percent of the bioplastic market and currently thermoplastic starch is considered as the most important and widely used bioplastic. Polylactic acid (PLA) plastics are produced from cane sugar or glucose. The biopolymer poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is produced by certain bacteria processing glucose or starch. It is produced on industrial scale in South American sugar industry. Transparent film is produced by it at a melting point higher than 130 degree Celsius and it can be biodegraded without residue. Currently researches are going on to introduce genetically modified bioplastic which is a great challenge to bioplastic industry.

As biodegradable plastic relies less on fossil fuel as a carbon source and also produces less net-new greenhouse emissions during biodegradation so the production and use of bioplastic is regarded as a more sustainable activity in comparison to petro plastics. Bioplastics decreases hazardous waste produced by oil-derived plastics which remain unchanged for hundreds of years and open a new era in packing technology and industry. Many studies have shown that biodegradable plastics represent a 42% reduction in carbon footprint.

The degree to which biodegradable plastics are degrading varies with temperature, polymer stability and available oxygen content. They require tightly controlled conditions to be degraded. According to the Society of Plastics Engineers over 200 million tons of plastic is annually manufactured around the world among which only USA manufactures 26 tones alone. According to EPA report 5.8% of those 26 million tones of plastic waste is recycled. Certified biodegradable plastic serves the utility of plastic e.g. light weight, resistance, relative low cost etc. with full ability to biodegrade in a compost facility. Biodegradable plastics enable composting of a much large portion of non-recoverable solid waste as they can be readily commingled with other organic wastes. This makes commercial composting of all mixed organics commercially viable and economically sustainable. The use of biodegradable plastics is an enabler for complete recovery of large quantities of municipal solid waste via aerobic composting.

By introducing biodegradable plastics solution to a world of manufacturing we will be able to aid the environment in an effective way. If we consider their cost, except cellulose most of the biodegradable plastic technology is relatively new and is currently not cost competitive with traditional plastic. In some special applications bioplastics are unbeatable because of the reason of pure material costs form only a part of the entire product cost.
by Jessica at 07-03-2010, 06:39 AM
BT or Bacillus thuringiensis is a naturally occurring bacteria which grows on soil. Now a day’s farmers use this bacterium for controlling Lepidopteran insects because it produces a toxin. Scientists have transferred the gene which produce toxin into a range of crops through genetic engineering. In case of Bt cotton, this toxin producing gene has been inserted into the cotton and it does show resistance to some kind of insects. The quality of insecticidal gene of Bt is expressed during the growing cycle of the plant. Cotton crops are easily attacked by pests. More than 10 per cent of the world's pesticides and over 25 per cent of insecticides are used for cotton crops.

Cotton was one of the first crops that was genetically engineered by the US-based agrochemical multinational Monsanto, whose transgenic Bollgard (Bt) cottonseed varieties were a big draw among farmers around the world. BT cotton was started with the promise of reducing the insecticide use and a better resistance to pest attacks, which leads to a rise in yields and reduction of costs. So Bt cotton became a safe and cost effective alternative to conventional cotton seeds.

But the problem is only the bollworm complex comprising the Pink Bollworm, the Spiny bollworm, the spotted bollworm, and American bollworm, these are targeted by the Bt toxin. For example - American Bollworm which attacks the plant after 60 days of sowing is killed by the BT toxin Cry1Ac which is approved for commercialization. And Cry1A is specific only for American Bollworm. The plant is attacked by the pink bollworm after 130 days of sowing - the time of the first pick. Cry1Ac has only a moderate effect on the Pink bollworm. As a result none of the Mahyco hybrids has any impact on pests such as Thrips, Aphids and Jassids, which attack the plants during its early phase. Thus while the number of sprays against the bollworm is counted, it is shown that the use of pesticides against the other pest is still high.

5 per cent of the total crop area in India is cotton and it spends a huge amount of money for using pesticides. About 55 per cent of all pesticides are used by India. Plants were treated with intensified chemical use which led to a dramatic rise in pest infestation. As a result they are showing resistance to insecticides. For increasing chemical costs and decreasing price of cotton thousands of cotton farmers in India were pushed in India, where the majority of the 17 million cotton cultivating families subsist on less than two hectares, into a vortex of debt.

It was really impossible to face the consequences of crop failures and mounting debts, as a result thousands of farmers across the country have ended their lives in the last five years. We hope that a new variety of Bt cotton will be produced that will be able to show resistance to more number of insecticides and the cost for insecticides will be reduced.
by Jessica at 06-29-2010, 10:54 AM
GM food or Genetically Modified foods are those types of food which are genetically modified to get the desirable traits in that food. The gene introduced here is by genetic engineering and with great safety this is done. Although mutation breeding gives modified crops, this genetic engineered food is more precise than that. In early 1990 the journey of GM food started and from then on it is prevailing in many parts of the world.

Corn, Soybean and canola are the most common example of GM food and other kind of animal products are also developed these days to meet the demand of the 21st century. In 2006 the scientist engineered pig for producing omega-3 fatty acid that was done by the roundworm gene. Another example is the genetic engineered pigs that can absorb phosphorus of plant more effectively.

Genetically modified crops are produced through the deletion or insertion gene. Certain genes are responsible for expressing the specific traits and if we can insert our desired gene on the gene of that animal we can get desired traits. Horizontal gene transfer, a term used here which means to insert new gene in any animal or plant. This is done by the penetration of exogenous DNA for our desired reason. By using single syringe artificially or by a fired gun and is inserted to the intended host. Some vectors are used here to transfer gene e.g. Agrobacterium bacterium is commonly used.

The main criteria of GM food are to get more nutrients or the yield of GM plants or animals are more than the traditional plants or animal. Most of the times they don't need not to use more pesticide and so it provides healthier food tor us. So for a developing country GM crops and subsequently GM foods are needed to ensure food safety. The developed countries have taken initiative to produce genetically engineered products for example America took huge initiative from 1996 for increasing their production of cotton, corn and soybean.

The scientists are thinking to produce such kind of GM foods that will meet up not only our food demand but also it will automatically produce antibiotic inside it as well as it will ensure vaccine for the infectious disease like Cancer and HIV. With the advent of Biotechnology, Scientists have developed Golden rice which is enriched with Vitamin A and can solve the problem of Vitamin A. Biotechnology has developed technology that has surpassed the production of rice in the saline prone area. It has introduced salt tolerant variety as well as drought tolerant and so on.

With the advent of BT cotton the producer of cotton has overcome the problem associated with the pest and other problem. More GM products are coming in the upcoming days that will solve the existing problem of crops and animal. These days the scientist have invented such kind of GM foods that can compromise allergen problem. So the food that is risky for the allergy prone people would be modified through genetic engineering and the allergy prone people can take it easily and without any hesitation. So GM food is a must to overcome the existing problem of food.
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