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by ExpertScie at 09-26-2012, 01:40 AM
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Today medical field is working day and night to find out complete cure from many deadly diseases like HIV- AIDS, Influenza, Measles, Hepatitis, Polio, Herpes Simplex, Rabies etc., and one common thing in all these diseases is that all are viral disease. Therefore the question comes here is what is so unique in viruses as compared to bacteria and other pathogens. Lets us look into it. What virus means and what are the unique characteristics of viruses which differentiate them from other pathogens.
Virology is the study of structure, metabolism, classification, evolution of the mode of infection of viruses and of the use of host genetic material and cell for reproduction. The knowledge of viruses is today helping many researchers to find out the therapy for such deadly diseases. By definition, viruses are intra cellular obligatory parasites. It means they can survive only if they are in host and they are non- living creatures when found outside of the host cell. They utilize host genetic and cellular material for their own reproduction. The classification of viruses is based on the host type they infect. For example if the host is bacteria, they are known as bacteriophages, and further classified as per the host plant, animal fungus etc. The most complex viruses are bacteriophages. One more type of classification is found in the viruses. It is based on the geometrical shape of the capsid of the virus. The capsid of viruses is either helix or icosahedrons. Also during this type of classification, structure of virus is considered for examples the presence or the absence of lipid envelop differentiate the virus types. Such type of complex structural geometric forms is not found in bacteria or other pathogens. This is one of the unique characteristics of viruses. Another is that they can only survive in their host which is not the case for bacteria. Today the most widely used classification is based on the Nucleic acid structure. Like DNA viruses and RNA viruses.
Viruses are the smallest microorganisms. They are much smaller than bacteria. The size of viruses ranges from 28 nano meter (nm) up to 465 nm. This also means that they are so small that they cannot be seen through light microscopes. This type of small sizes is another unique characteristic of viruses. So if they are so small how their molecular shape and every detail study is done? The use of modern electron microscope helps to completely study viruses. Also many a times X-ray crystallography and spectroscopy is used for the research in the field of virology. Today with the use of such sophisticated instruments, it is known that there are around two thousand species and around three hundred genera of viruses worldwide.
During the course of virology development, many infectious entities which are even smaller than viruses have been identified. These are sub viral particles and can cause diseases in humans and even animals. These are Viroids which is itself a naked circular RNA molecule capable of infecting plants. This is another unique characteristic of viruses and related entities. Such sub viral particle is nucleic acid molecule either with or without capsid is capable of infection with the help of another virus and is capable to reproduce in host. This type of sub viral entity is known as satellite. Prions are the protein which is also capable of creating abnormal health along with the help of other prions.
Today the many important diseases are caused by viruses. Apart from infectious disease, many viruses have been found which are contributing in the development of cancerous cells. These are known as oncoviruses. Such characteristics of viruses make them unique and different from bacteria with respect to shape, size, mode of reproduction, infection, pathogencity. This all create curiosity among scientist and researcher to study them in every details and to develop a successful treatment therapy against them to help patient to survive from such deadly viral diseases. Many of such techniques and methods of their treatment is being successfully applied all over the world. The main such is vaccination against such diseases. As always prevention is better than cure.
Virology is the study of structure, metabolism, classification, evolution of the mode of infection of viruses and of the use of host genetic material and cell for reproduction. The knowledge of viruses is today helping many researchers to find out the therapy for such deadly diseases. By definition, viruses are intra cellular obligatory parasites. It means they can survive only if they are in host and they are non- living creatures when found outside of the host cell. They utilize host genetic and cellular material for their own reproduction. The classification of viruses is based on the host type they infect. For example if the host is bacteria, they are known as bacteriophages, and further classified as per the host plant, animal fungus etc. The most complex viruses are bacteriophages. One more type of classification is found in the viruses. It is based on the geometrical shape of the capsid of the virus. The capsid of viruses is either helix or icosahedrons. Also during this type of classification, structure of virus is considered for examples the presence or the absence of lipid envelop differentiate the virus types. Such type of complex structural geometric forms is not found in bacteria or other pathogens. This is one of the unique characteristics of viruses. Another is that they can only survive in their host which is not the case for bacteria. Today the most widely used classification is based on the Nucleic acid structure. Like DNA viruses and RNA viruses.
Viruses are the smallest microorganisms. They are much smaller than bacteria. The size of viruses ranges from 28 nano meter (nm) up to 465 nm. This also means that they are so small that they cannot be seen through light microscopes. This type of small sizes is another unique characteristic of viruses. So if they are so small how their molecular shape and every detail study is done? The use of modern electron microscope helps to completely study viruses. Also many a times X-ray crystallography and spectroscopy is used for the research in the field of virology. Today with the use of such sophisticated instruments, it is known that there are around two thousand species and around three hundred genera of viruses worldwide.
During the course of virology development, many infectious entities which are even smaller than viruses have been identified. These are sub viral particles and can cause diseases in humans and even animals. These are Viroids which is itself a naked circular RNA molecule capable of infecting plants. This is another unique characteristic of viruses and related entities. Such sub viral particle is nucleic acid molecule either with or without capsid is capable of infection with the help of another virus and is capable to reproduce in host. This type of sub viral entity is known as satellite. Prions are the protein which is also capable of creating abnormal health along with the help of other prions.
Today the many important diseases are caused by viruses. Apart from infectious disease, many viruses have been found which are contributing in the development of cancerous cells. These are known as oncoviruses. Such characteristics of viruses make them unique and different from bacteria with respect to shape, size, mode of reproduction, infection, pathogencity. This all create curiosity among scientist and researcher to study them in every details and to develop a successful treatment therapy against them to help patient to survive from such deadly viral diseases. Many of such techniques and methods of their treatment is being successfully applied all over the world. The main such is vaccination against such diseases. As always prevention is better than cure.
by ExpertScie at 09-25-2012, 11:50 PM
0 comments
The modification of genetic information related to well being of life is known as Genetic Engineering. This uses techniques which are helpful in genomic manipulation of organisms. In this method of Genetic Engineering, the gene of interest is introduced into the DNA of organism. This gene of interest may be foreign DNA or Synthetic genes. After this, propagation of the recombinant organism can be done with the help of breeding, which may not need modern technology. This way a population of organisms are developed which are giving desired results with the activation of gene of interest. One best example is Insulin production from bacteria E.coli in which the gene of interest that is the gene responsible for insulin molecule formation are introduced & a required quality and quantity of insulin is produced. This is known as Genetic Engineering.
The organism in which the DNA is modified with the introduction of desired gene is known as genetically modified organism (GMO). In 1973 the first genetically engineered bacteria were successfully developed. The modification of genome of any organism is governed by many regulatory authorities worldwide and there is a strict regulation for the same. The first commercialized bacteria for insulin production were in 1982.
The host genome is used for the introduction of desired genes. This is done at specified or unspecified sites within the genome depending upon the test organism. First of all, the isolation of gene of interest or genetic material is done and the same is copied and amplified using techniques like genetic cloning. This way a genetic material is produced which is capable of expression of desired phenotypes or desired products. This is the inserted into the host DNA. This process uses many enzymes which help in cutting of desired gene and also enzymes which help in ligation or insertion of desired gene into the host genetic material. The gene targeting is another method of genetic engineering.
Today many genetically engineered plants, animals and microorganisms are successfully produced. This helps in making better level of achievements, like useful genetically modified plants are made more resistant to diseases as compared to their wild type. Microorganisms which are producing antibiotics are made capable of giving specific quality as well as required quantity of drugs, animals like goats are used for milks. Today many approved products from genetically engineered animals are used one of such example is the commercial production and sale of anti-thrombin protein which is in the milk of genetically modified goats.
Many a times the introduction of heritable genetic material which is the gene of interest is directly incorporated through technique which is known as micro-injection, encapsulation and macro injections. The indirect method is done with the help of vector which is compatible with host genetic material and helps in introduction of desired gene into the DNA of host. The vectors play a role of vehicle for the same. Such vectors are known as plasmids.
There is different terminology for the organism’s undergone genetic engineering; this depends on the species types. If the genetic material is introduced into the host from another species which is not related, the resulting (GMO) organisms are known as transgenic. When the genetic material is introduced into the host from the same species which are able to breed naturally, then such GMO are known as cisgenic. One such terminology is gene knockout; it refers to the organism from which the genetic material is removed to give desired results. The natural changes in the genetic material of the organism due to the impact from environment, or mutagenic agents or any such other factor is known as mutation. Mutation had helped many organisms to survive during the course of evolution. This happened with changes in the genotype and concurrent changes in phenotypes which helped them to adapt to the extreme situations like competition, less availability of food, extreme environmental changes or conditions like high temperature etc.
Today with the development of technology and science, many genetically modified plants, microorganisms, and animals are being used successfully all over the world. There are many of such examples. The tobacco, much vegetable plant which was genetically modified were resistant to herbicides. Few such plants are completely resistant to harmful endemic bacteria and viruses. Many genetically modified bacteria are today used to produce high quality medicinal drugs; many of them are life saving antibiotics. With the further development of science man is achieving new heights, most recently that is in 2010 scientist from J Craig Venter Institute had synthesized first genome of bacteria and had introduced it into the cell without DNA and the outcome was the bacteria named Synthia. Synthia means synthetic life (first of its type in the world).
The organism in which the DNA is modified with the introduction of desired gene is known as genetically modified organism (GMO). In 1973 the first genetically engineered bacteria were successfully developed. The modification of genome of any organism is governed by many regulatory authorities worldwide and there is a strict regulation for the same. The first commercialized bacteria for insulin production were in 1982.
The host genome is used for the introduction of desired genes. This is done at specified or unspecified sites within the genome depending upon the test organism. First of all, the isolation of gene of interest or genetic material is done and the same is copied and amplified using techniques like genetic cloning. This way a genetic material is produced which is capable of expression of desired phenotypes or desired products. This is the inserted into the host DNA. This process uses many enzymes which help in cutting of desired gene and also enzymes which help in ligation or insertion of desired gene into the host genetic material. The gene targeting is another method of genetic engineering.
Today many genetically engineered plants, animals and microorganisms are successfully produced. This helps in making better level of achievements, like useful genetically modified plants are made more resistant to diseases as compared to their wild type. Microorganisms which are producing antibiotics are made capable of giving specific quality as well as required quantity of drugs, animals like goats are used for milks. Today many approved products from genetically engineered animals are used one of such example is the commercial production and sale of anti-thrombin protein which is in the milk of genetically modified goats.
Many a times the introduction of heritable genetic material which is the gene of interest is directly incorporated through technique which is known as micro-injection, encapsulation and macro injections. The indirect method is done with the help of vector which is compatible with host genetic material and helps in introduction of desired gene into the DNA of host. The vectors play a role of vehicle for the same. Such vectors are known as plasmids.
There is different terminology for the organism’s undergone genetic engineering; this depends on the species types. If the genetic material is introduced into the host from another species which is not related, the resulting (GMO) organisms are known as transgenic. When the genetic material is introduced into the host from the same species which are able to breed naturally, then such GMO are known as cisgenic. One such terminology is gene knockout; it refers to the organism from which the genetic material is removed to give desired results. The natural changes in the genetic material of the organism due to the impact from environment, or mutagenic agents or any such other factor is known as mutation. Mutation had helped many organisms to survive during the course of evolution. This happened with changes in the genotype and concurrent changes in phenotypes which helped them to adapt to the extreme situations like competition, less availability of food, extreme environmental changes or conditions like high temperature etc.
Today with the development of technology and science, many genetically modified plants, microorganisms, and animals are being used successfully all over the world. There are many of such examples. The tobacco, much vegetable plant which was genetically modified were resistant to herbicides. Few such plants are completely resistant to harmful endemic bacteria and viruses. Many genetically modified bacteria are today used to produce high quality medicinal drugs; many of them are life saving antibiotics. With the further development of science man is achieving new heights, most recently that is in 2010 scientist from J Craig Venter Institute had synthesized first genome of bacteria and had introduced it into the cell without DNA and the outcome was the bacteria named Synthia. Synthia means synthetic life (first of its type in the world).
by Kamat2010 at 09-25-2012, 05:34 PM
0 comments
Drug discovery and drug research have become fast growing fields of research. As more and more new prospective drugs appear, pharmacology starts playing a major role in the discovery process. The prospective drugs undergo a number of high-throughput screening processes after which they ultimately become potential drugs.
Pharmacology deals with the effect of the compounds within the body thereby affecting the function of the biological system. It covers mainly two areas: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. While the latter deals with the effect of the drug on the body, the former deals with the effect of the biological system of the body on the drug. Both determine the fate of the prospective compounds in becoming potential drugs. Among them, Pharmacokinetics plays a vital role in drug discovery in which the drug-like properties of the prospective compounds are tested in both in-vitro and in-vivo environment.
Pharmacokinetics is the study of the concentration time course of a compound and its metabolite within the body based on the ADME-Tox properties of the compound. After ingestion, the compound undergoes a series of changes within the body starting from the solubilisation of the compound, absorption, digestion, metabolism, and ultimately excretion from the body. After ingestion, the concentration of the compound firstly increases within the blood stream with time due to the solubilisation of the compound and then, after metabolism, the concentration decreases with time with an increase in the corresponding metabolite of the compound. The Pharmacokinetics of a compound is studied based on a number of pharmacokinetic or PK parameters like clearance, half-life, etc., measured with the help of invitro experiments, which may be cell-based or non-cell based. The concentration of the compounds and their corresponding metabolites is measured in an HPLC or LC/MS after conducting the experiments. After the compounds are screened based on invitro experiments, they are tested on animals like rats, mice, etc., which is known as animal pharmacokinetics. In this process, blood or serum of the animal is collected at various time-intervals after the ingestion of the compound. The concentration of the compound and its metabolite is measured with the help of LC/MS. LC/MS is usually used in the measurement of the compound and its metabolite after proper extraction procedure, as it can measure very low amounts of the same present in the biological fluids with minimal interference from the proteins, etc present in the fluids. After proper statistical analysis of the data, the PK parameters are measured. Based on this data, the potential drug-like compounds are screened for further tests.
The PK parameters of the compounds are greatly affected due to the plasma protein binding of the compounds within the body. These plasma proteins bind the compounds and thereby reduce their bioavailability in the body. Moreover, the different barriers in the body like intestinal barrier, BBB, etc also reduce the bioavailability of the compounds in many cases. Hence, along with the usual tests of solubility, metabolism, etc of the compound, a study is carried out regarding the effects of plasma proteins and various barriers within the body on the compounds in order to get a clearer idea of the bioavailability of the compounds. The combined study gives a true picture regarding the PK parameters of the compounds. These tests are also performed invitro in the drug discovery lab. In the preliminary screening, the toxicity studies also form a very vital part, as a compound may have drug-like properties and be toxic too which thereby rejects it during the screening process.
Although, the entire process may seem like a simple one, but it is a long drawn process whereby, both the chemistry and biology departments are involved and go hand in hand to make drug discovery a success. Even though some compounds may be selected to be having drug-like properties in the first range of tests, but they then undergo even further chemical modifications in their structure to make them more potential in nature. These structural modifications depend on their nature of solubility, metabolism, and bioavailability. If they possess further enhanced drug-like properties after structural modification, then they undergo different cell assays and series of tests on animals before undergoing tests on human trials, which forms the last stage in drug discovery process.
Pharmacology deals with the effect of the compounds within the body thereby affecting the function of the biological system. It covers mainly two areas: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. While the latter deals with the effect of the drug on the body, the former deals with the effect of the biological system of the body on the drug. Both determine the fate of the prospective compounds in becoming potential drugs. Among them, Pharmacokinetics plays a vital role in drug discovery in which the drug-like properties of the prospective compounds are tested in both in-vitro and in-vivo environment.
Pharmacokinetics is the study of the concentration time course of a compound and its metabolite within the body based on the ADME-Tox properties of the compound. After ingestion, the compound undergoes a series of changes within the body starting from the solubilisation of the compound, absorption, digestion, metabolism, and ultimately excretion from the body. After ingestion, the concentration of the compound firstly increases within the blood stream with time due to the solubilisation of the compound and then, after metabolism, the concentration decreases with time with an increase in the corresponding metabolite of the compound. The Pharmacokinetics of a compound is studied based on a number of pharmacokinetic or PK parameters like clearance, half-life, etc., measured with the help of invitro experiments, which may be cell-based or non-cell based. The concentration of the compounds and their corresponding metabolites is measured in an HPLC or LC/MS after conducting the experiments. After the compounds are screened based on invitro experiments, they are tested on animals like rats, mice, etc., which is known as animal pharmacokinetics. In this process, blood or serum of the animal is collected at various time-intervals after the ingestion of the compound. The concentration of the compound and its metabolite is measured with the help of LC/MS. LC/MS is usually used in the measurement of the compound and its metabolite after proper extraction procedure, as it can measure very low amounts of the same present in the biological fluids with minimal interference from the proteins, etc present in the fluids. After proper statistical analysis of the data, the PK parameters are measured. Based on this data, the potential drug-like compounds are screened for further tests.
The PK parameters of the compounds are greatly affected due to the plasma protein binding of the compounds within the body. These plasma proteins bind the compounds and thereby reduce their bioavailability in the body. Moreover, the different barriers in the body like intestinal barrier, BBB, etc also reduce the bioavailability of the compounds in many cases. Hence, along with the usual tests of solubility, metabolism, etc of the compound, a study is carried out regarding the effects of plasma proteins and various barriers within the body on the compounds in order to get a clearer idea of the bioavailability of the compounds. The combined study gives a true picture regarding the PK parameters of the compounds. These tests are also performed invitro in the drug discovery lab. In the preliminary screening, the toxicity studies also form a very vital part, as a compound may have drug-like properties and be toxic too which thereby rejects it during the screening process.
Although, the entire process may seem like a simple one, but it is a long drawn process whereby, both the chemistry and biology departments are involved and go hand in hand to make drug discovery a success. Even though some compounds may be selected to be having drug-like properties in the first range of tests, but they then undergo even further chemical modifications in their structure to make them more potential in nature. These structural modifications depend on their nature of solubility, metabolism, and bioavailability. If they possess further enhanced drug-like properties after structural modification, then they undergo different cell assays and series of tests on animals before undergoing tests on human trials, which forms the last stage in drug discovery process.
by Ishani7 at 09-25-2012, 04:00 AM
1 comments
Biofilms are found abundantly in the nature on rocks, in industrial pipelines, in clinical appliances and also inside living organisms. Microbial biofilms have gained popularity due to the negative impacts caused for human health such as forming dental plaques, as food pathogens, colonization of implanted human organs etc. Bacterial species like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E. coli and yeasts like Candida are involved in clinical biofilms. However, besides these negative issues, biotechnology has made it possible to use these microbial communities with special characteristics for human efficacy.
This micro level association can consist of bacteria, fungi, archea, protozoa and algae. Mostly, microorganisms are present as biofilms in the environment. For an instant, microbial biofilms in the soil induces plant growth and protects plants from soil borne pathogens. A single biofilm consist of different species of the different organisms which makes it an advanced form of microbial communities. Biofilms are difficult to eradicate using antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents including chlorine using the standard concentrations. Bacterial biofilms readily develop antibiotic resistance if higher doses are used. Recent research focuses on defining minimum biofilm eliminating concentration (MBEC) instead of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for bacterial biofilms.
Formation of biofilms basically depends on the adherent properties of the microbial cells. First the individual cells adhere to a biotic or abiotic surface in a reversible manner which then attaches to the surface more firmly by cell surface structures such as pilli, fimbriae. Then the cells increase in number. In further development of the biofilm, the cells produce an extracellular matrix composed of polysaccharides, proteins which in turn defend the biofilm from external environmental stresses. The microbial cells in the biofilm have unique physiological properties when compared to individual planktonic cells of the same organism. This uniqueness also corresponds to the relative position of the cell in the biofilm. The cells at the surface of the biofilm are more metabolically active and larger in size. They continue to divide and develop the biofilm whereas the cells at the depth are in a likely dormant state which becomes active with the death of surface cells. In antimicrobial treatments, only the top cell layer is affected in this micro-niche. Communication between microbial cells takes place by quorum sensing & they may form channels which permits uptake of nutrients, water etc. Micro-environment in the biofilm is subjected to changes in pH, oxygen concentration depending on the macro-environment. In terms of metabolic rates, biofilms are far more advanced than individual cells and hence can be used efficiently.
Biofuel production has gained a considerable attention as a substitute to fossil fuel which in turn reduces greenhouse effect caused by burning of fossil fuels. Scientists are trying to produce ethanol with the help of microbial biofilms using cellulose in plants as the starting material. Microbes involved in decaying plant substances which can form biofilms are used for biofuel production. These microorganisms are capable of producing hydrolytic enzymes called cellulosomes. Microorganisms found in the biofilms used for biofilm production include bacteria like Cellulomonas and fungi like Aspergillus. Industrial biofuel production is not sufficiently cost effective due to the required pretreatments which convert the cellulose to simple sugars or organic acids which is then converted to ethanol by fermentation using fungi and bacteria. As the biofilm is immobilized into a solid surface the recovery of the product becomes efficient. With the use of biofilms; bioprocessing, delignification, saccharification, fermentation and separation is possible inside a single reactor which is advantageous over usual industrial methods.
Biofilters are another use of biofilm technology which is used to purify polluted air released from industries. In this, the exhaust air is passed through the biofilter before it’s released or reused. Generally under optimized conditions, a biofilter can reduce off odours in exhaust air due to Ammonia, Hydrogen sulfide etc. Moisture content in the growth medium and the retention time for exhaust air can be controlled to optimize the process. Biofilter media usually consist of wood chips and compost which supplies nutrients, energy and water to microorganisms. Porosity in the biofilter is also significant for the efficiency of the biofilter. By products of the biofilter includes Carbon dioxide, water, minerals and organic compounds which makes it ecofriendly.
Bacterial biofilms are the powerhouse of microbial fuel cells (MFC). Using biofilms in the fuel cells permits waste decomposition which is another advantage. Microbial fuel cells consist of an anode, a cathode, electrolyte solution and an external circuit. An electric current is generated as a result of microbial metabolic activities in the biofilm. Microbial energy production using organic waste results in production of Carbon dioxide and free electrons. This flow of electrons from the medium to anode and back to cathode generate an electric current. The biofilm matrix play an important role in electrical conductivity as it encloses micro scale conductive nanowires. Clostridium cellulolyticum and Geobacter sulferreducens are commonly used bacterial species in microbial fuel cells. A recent discovery states that a bacterium, Bacillus stratosphericus found in the atmosphere was able to produce electricity more efficiently in an artificially created biofilm for a microbial fuel cell. In waste water treatments, microalgae and bacteria are used in biofilms converting the organic waste into simple products.
In bioremediation, biofilms are used for degrading oil spills, detoxification and purification which minimize the complex processes of using chemical and physical methods. Microbes are capable of removing the contaminants present in very minute quantities such as heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons and polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
Apart from these major applications, biofilms are used as models for studies on quorum sensing, genetic heterogeneity and physiological properties. Further studies are performed to understand the complex behavior of these microbial communities and to use them for human benefit. However, the complexity of the microorganisms in a biofilm in terms of metabolic diversity and species diversity has made it difficult to understand the principle pathways in biofilms.
This micro level association can consist of bacteria, fungi, archea, protozoa and algae. Mostly, microorganisms are present as biofilms in the environment. For an instant, microbial biofilms in the soil induces plant growth and protects plants from soil borne pathogens. A single biofilm consist of different species of the different organisms which makes it an advanced form of microbial communities. Biofilms are difficult to eradicate using antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents including chlorine using the standard concentrations. Bacterial biofilms readily develop antibiotic resistance if higher doses are used. Recent research focuses on defining minimum biofilm eliminating concentration (MBEC) instead of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for bacterial biofilms.
Formation of biofilms basically depends on the adherent properties of the microbial cells. First the individual cells adhere to a biotic or abiotic surface in a reversible manner which then attaches to the surface more firmly by cell surface structures such as pilli, fimbriae. Then the cells increase in number. In further development of the biofilm, the cells produce an extracellular matrix composed of polysaccharides, proteins which in turn defend the biofilm from external environmental stresses. The microbial cells in the biofilm have unique physiological properties when compared to individual planktonic cells of the same organism. This uniqueness also corresponds to the relative position of the cell in the biofilm. The cells at the surface of the biofilm are more metabolically active and larger in size. They continue to divide and develop the biofilm whereas the cells at the depth are in a likely dormant state which becomes active with the death of surface cells. In antimicrobial treatments, only the top cell layer is affected in this micro-niche. Communication between microbial cells takes place by quorum sensing & they may form channels which permits uptake of nutrients, water etc. Micro-environment in the biofilm is subjected to changes in pH, oxygen concentration depending on the macro-environment. In terms of metabolic rates, biofilms are far more advanced than individual cells and hence can be used efficiently.
Biofuel production has gained a considerable attention as a substitute to fossil fuel which in turn reduces greenhouse effect caused by burning of fossil fuels. Scientists are trying to produce ethanol with the help of microbial biofilms using cellulose in plants as the starting material. Microbes involved in decaying plant substances which can form biofilms are used for biofuel production. These microorganisms are capable of producing hydrolytic enzymes called cellulosomes. Microorganisms found in the biofilms used for biofilm production include bacteria like Cellulomonas and fungi like Aspergillus. Industrial biofuel production is not sufficiently cost effective due to the required pretreatments which convert the cellulose to simple sugars or organic acids which is then converted to ethanol by fermentation using fungi and bacteria. As the biofilm is immobilized into a solid surface the recovery of the product becomes efficient. With the use of biofilms; bioprocessing, delignification, saccharification, fermentation and separation is possible inside a single reactor which is advantageous over usual industrial methods.
Biofilters are another use of biofilm technology which is used to purify polluted air released from industries. In this, the exhaust air is passed through the biofilter before it’s released or reused. Generally under optimized conditions, a biofilter can reduce off odours in exhaust air due to Ammonia, Hydrogen sulfide etc. Moisture content in the growth medium and the retention time for exhaust air can be controlled to optimize the process. Biofilter media usually consist of wood chips and compost which supplies nutrients, energy and water to microorganisms. Porosity in the biofilter is also significant for the efficiency of the biofilter. By products of the biofilter includes Carbon dioxide, water, minerals and organic compounds which makes it ecofriendly.
Bacterial biofilms are the powerhouse of microbial fuel cells (MFC). Using biofilms in the fuel cells permits waste decomposition which is another advantage. Microbial fuel cells consist of an anode, a cathode, electrolyte solution and an external circuit. An electric current is generated as a result of microbial metabolic activities in the biofilm. Microbial energy production using organic waste results in production of Carbon dioxide and free electrons. This flow of electrons from the medium to anode and back to cathode generate an electric current. The biofilm matrix play an important role in electrical conductivity as it encloses micro scale conductive nanowires. Clostridium cellulolyticum and Geobacter sulferreducens are commonly used bacterial species in microbial fuel cells. A recent discovery states that a bacterium, Bacillus stratosphericus found in the atmosphere was able to produce electricity more efficiently in an artificially created biofilm for a microbial fuel cell. In waste water treatments, microalgae and bacteria are used in biofilms converting the organic waste into simple products.
In bioremediation, biofilms are used for degrading oil spills, detoxification and purification which minimize the complex processes of using chemical and physical methods. Microbes are capable of removing the contaminants present in very minute quantities such as heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons and polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
Apart from these major applications, biofilms are used as models for studies on quorum sensing, genetic heterogeneity and physiological properties. Further studies are performed to understand the complex behavior of these microbial communities and to use them for human benefit. However, the complexity of the microorganisms in a biofilm in terms of metabolic diversity and species diversity has made it difficult to understand the principle pathways in biofilms.
by ExpertScie at 09-25-2012, 01:38 AM
0 comments
Microbiology has tremendous scope and a very bright future. Students who are pursuing their career as a Microbiologist, golden opportunities await for you. Some of the best scientific research jobs are in available in the field of Microbiology.
Einstein rightly said "Imagination is powerful than knowledge". Today the innovation in science is spreading its arms like the way universe is spreading since big bang. Few 100 years ago man imagined flying in sky and today it is happening. Today he can fly in sky for days, months and years with aero plane, rockets, space labs etc. There are thousands of such examples were science has made miracles and made imagination a reality. Today you imagine something and will see that tomorrow or soon innovation in science will make it reality. What is required in today’s scientific world is the vision, the imagination to innovate rest the technology and knowledge will take care.
One such branch of science is microbiology which has made many imaginations a reality. The innovations in this field has given the ability to human being to see tiny invisible organisms of unbelievable size less than 0.2 micron or even less and to study every detail of it. The scope of microbiology is immense due to its ability to control all critical points of many fields like Medical, Diary, Pharmaceutical, Industrial, Clinical, research, water industry, agriculture, nanotechnology, chemical etc.
It is true that career in microbiology is great due to its vast scope but at the same time, this is not sufficient and what is further required to have great career in microbiology is a new dimension to the thinking, new dimension to the education system, and new dimension to the way the knowledge of microbiology is applied. Today education is considered as a way of earning money in life through jobs. From our school days it is being taught and our mind set is being made to have a good job after education. Our first aim after education is getting a white collar job through campus interview or any other mean. Is it really making sense to just get a good job with education, is it only meaning of today’s education? The answer is of course not. There is a need to change the mind sets and to change the education system such that it should teach us to innovate, should teach us to imagine & to establish with our own knowledge and education beyond a mean to earn just for livelihood.
With new dimension of thinking , today microbiologist can easily innovate new diagnostic kits (e.g. Pathogen detecting, antigen detecting, receptor detecting etc), can discover new drugs with antibiotic sensitivity tests, zone of inhibitions etc., Can isolate unique species from mountains , strange areas, extreme conditions, who know you may find antibiotic properties in many of them. Hundreds of such enzyme properties, antibiotic properties within microorganisms are being detected daily and are applied in various medical, fermentation industries and in developing new products for well being of human life. Microbiologist can apply for patents for their small-big innovations and can even sell them for million dollars, can develop their own small or big clinical laboratory, Can develop their own dairy, pharmaceutical, medical, agricultural institutes and industries simply with knowledge of applied microbiology. Who knows your imagination of isolating organisms from extreme condition can give new drugs for today’s burning issues and diseases and can save thousands of patients life’s all over the world.
Today microbiologists are required in top organizations like NASA for identification of any life form for their various missions like the recent Mars curiosity mission and many more. The scope is immense; just what is needed is right application of knowledge. With such a scope in microbiology what today’s students, professionals need is just a change of their mindsets , a change in their imagination , a thinking beyond circle, rest as mentioned earlier, knowledge and technology will take care to make them successful. Job is a way to apply knowledge but innovation and imagination is a way to destination and Einstein rightly said that “imagination is powerful than knowledge”.
Einstein rightly said "Imagination is powerful than knowledge". Today the innovation in science is spreading its arms like the way universe is spreading since big bang. Few 100 years ago man imagined flying in sky and today it is happening. Today he can fly in sky for days, months and years with aero plane, rockets, space labs etc. There are thousands of such examples were science has made miracles and made imagination a reality. Today you imagine something and will see that tomorrow or soon innovation in science will make it reality. What is required in today’s scientific world is the vision, the imagination to innovate rest the technology and knowledge will take care.
One such branch of science is microbiology which has made many imaginations a reality. The innovations in this field has given the ability to human being to see tiny invisible organisms of unbelievable size less than 0.2 micron or even less and to study every detail of it. The scope of microbiology is immense due to its ability to control all critical points of many fields like Medical, Diary, Pharmaceutical, Industrial, Clinical, research, water industry, agriculture, nanotechnology, chemical etc.
It is true that career in microbiology is great due to its vast scope but at the same time, this is not sufficient and what is further required to have great career in microbiology is a new dimension to the thinking, new dimension to the education system, and new dimension to the way the knowledge of microbiology is applied. Today education is considered as a way of earning money in life through jobs. From our school days it is being taught and our mind set is being made to have a good job after education. Our first aim after education is getting a white collar job through campus interview or any other mean. Is it really making sense to just get a good job with education, is it only meaning of today’s education? The answer is of course not. There is a need to change the mind sets and to change the education system such that it should teach us to innovate, should teach us to imagine & to establish with our own knowledge and education beyond a mean to earn just for livelihood.
With new dimension of thinking , today microbiologist can easily innovate new diagnostic kits (e.g. Pathogen detecting, antigen detecting, receptor detecting etc), can discover new drugs with antibiotic sensitivity tests, zone of inhibitions etc., Can isolate unique species from mountains , strange areas, extreme conditions, who know you may find antibiotic properties in many of them. Hundreds of such enzyme properties, antibiotic properties within microorganisms are being detected daily and are applied in various medical, fermentation industries and in developing new products for well being of human life. Microbiologist can apply for patents for their small-big innovations and can even sell them for million dollars, can develop their own small or big clinical laboratory, Can develop their own dairy, pharmaceutical, medical, agricultural institutes and industries simply with knowledge of applied microbiology. Who knows your imagination of isolating organisms from extreme condition can give new drugs for today’s burning issues and diseases and can save thousands of patients life’s all over the world.
Today microbiologists are required in top organizations like NASA for identification of any life form for their various missions like the recent Mars curiosity mission and many more. The scope is immense; just what is needed is right application of knowledge. With such a scope in microbiology what today’s students, professionals need is just a change of their mindsets , a change in their imagination , a thinking beyond circle, rest as mentioned earlier, knowledge and technology will take care to make them successful. Job is a way to apply knowledge but innovation and imagination is a way to destination and Einstein rightly said that “imagination is powerful than knowledge”.
by ExpertScie at 09-25-2012, 01:30 AM
2 comments
Free radicals are the most reactive molecules in the body and are produced as a result of various biochemical reactions within the body. These Free radicals are the molecules with an unpaired electron, and this makes it very reactive in nature. Free radicals are very essentials in many biochemical reactions such as killing bacteria in granulocytes. Free radicals like superoxide are mostly found in higher number and are highly unstable and can damage cell structure by reacting with the lipid bi-layer. This may cause cell injury or even cell death in the organ of organism. At the same if level of free radicals is more in the cell, it may causes the oxidative stress which may results in to more cell death, damage or may cause mutation in DNA, RNA. Free radical is also the major contributor in cancer, various disorders, atherosclerosis, ageing, and in inflammatory diseases. Free Radicals inhibit the antitrypsin which causes the lung emphysema.
In body of living organism brain is always at high risk. Free radicals can react quickly with the polyunsaturated lipids and cause more damage to the brains cells. To avoids the brain injury or trauma conditions usually strong antioxidants are used to reduce the oxidative stress from brain. Level of free radicals increases during cancer, Parkinson’s and in Alzheimer’s disease. In neuropsychiatric illness level of free radicals are very high and they creates additional motor disorders. Increased level of free radicals in body is not only during disorders or diseases. It is observed that stressful condition, smoking, toxic chemicals, pollutions are also contributors in increasing level of free radicals in body. Therefore to be healthy one should have control of these factors and should follow healthy lifestyle.
Free radicals are important to body at certain level, so in nature body have developed a natural mechanism to maintain the optimum level of free radicals. Many antioxidants are formed in the body like catalase, superoxide dismutase etc., also many vitamins play the role of antioxidants in body such as Vitamin C, Vitamins E, Beta-carotene etc. all serve as a Antioxidants in the body and neutralize the bad effect of free radicals. Antioxidants are either nutritive or non nutritive in nature. Bilirubin and uric acid also play a role of antioxidants. They take parts in various biochemical reactions, while keeping optimum level of Bilirubin and uric acid to avoid jaundice and gout respectively.
High intensity, colorful fruits, vegetables are the naturals source of Antioxidants available in the nature. Antioxidants help in improving immune system of the body. Research has proved that antioxidants help in reducing toxicity, help in would heal by increasing the rate of cell generation. Antioxidants help to reduce osteoporosis of bone, helps in keeping arteries free from any damage. Antioxidants keeps the cell cycle normal, helps in preventing the damage to DNA, RNA. Antioxidants are also used as preservatives in many food products and in many cosmetic products.
Now days many pharmaceuticals companies have launch many products which have a combination of vitamins, minerals and many antioxidants as a part supplements. Strong antioxidants are also used as prophylactic treatment in fertility related disorders in body, research has proved that high amount of consumption of antioxidants have help in improve count of sperms in male.
Antioxidants are now used in acute CNS treatments, Lipoic adic is being considered as antioxidants. Antioxidant as it helps in fighting the ageing process. Lipoic acid reduces the oxidative stress from the cells of eye, myocardial cell, and so help in preventing from heart attack and cataracts. Antioxidants are used in treating the fried Reich ataxia which causes nervous system damage. Recent studies have proven that selenium is used as cancer preventing antioxidants. Lycopene is strong antioxidants now a day’s used in treating cancer. Lanthanides are also used for treating cancers. Antioxidants help in keeping erythrocytes in healthy condition by preventing them from free radicals. Antioxidants also help preventing coronary artery disease. Use of antioxidants has help in preventing the side effect’s caused by the chemotherapy used in cancer treatment and had shown less acidity related problem in patients. Therefore antioxidants play a vital role for improving health and in treatments of numerous malignant and cardio logical related diseases.
In body of living organism brain is always at high risk. Free radicals can react quickly with the polyunsaturated lipids and cause more damage to the brains cells. To avoids the brain injury or trauma conditions usually strong antioxidants are used to reduce the oxidative stress from brain. Level of free radicals increases during cancer, Parkinson’s and in Alzheimer’s disease. In neuropsychiatric illness level of free radicals are very high and they creates additional motor disorders. Increased level of free radicals in body is not only during disorders or diseases. It is observed that stressful condition, smoking, toxic chemicals, pollutions are also contributors in increasing level of free radicals in body. Therefore to be healthy one should have control of these factors and should follow healthy lifestyle.
Free radicals are important to body at certain level, so in nature body have developed a natural mechanism to maintain the optimum level of free radicals. Many antioxidants are formed in the body like catalase, superoxide dismutase etc., also many vitamins play the role of antioxidants in body such as Vitamin C, Vitamins E, Beta-carotene etc. all serve as a Antioxidants in the body and neutralize the bad effect of free radicals. Antioxidants are either nutritive or non nutritive in nature. Bilirubin and uric acid also play a role of antioxidants. They take parts in various biochemical reactions, while keeping optimum level of Bilirubin and uric acid to avoid jaundice and gout respectively.
High intensity, colorful fruits, vegetables are the naturals source of Antioxidants available in the nature. Antioxidants help in improving immune system of the body. Research has proved that antioxidants help in reducing toxicity, help in would heal by increasing the rate of cell generation. Antioxidants help to reduce osteoporosis of bone, helps in keeping arteries free from any damage. Antioxidants keeps the cell cycle normal, helps in preventing the damage to DNA, RNA. Antioxidants are also used as preservatives in many food products and in many cosmetic products.
Now days many pharmaceuticals companies have launch many products which have a combination of vitamins, minerals and many antioxidants as a part supplements. Strong antioxidants are also used as prophylactic treatment in fertility related disorders in body, research has proved that high amount of consumption of antioxidants have help in improve count of sperms in male.
Antioxidants are now used in acute CNS treatments, Lipoic adic is being considered as antioxidants. Antioxidant as it helps in fighting the ageing process. Lipoic acid reduces the oxidative stress from the cells of eye, myocardial cell, and so help in preventing from heart attack and cataracts. Antioxidants are used in treating the fried Reich ataxia which causes nervous system damage. Recent studies have proven that selenium is used as cancer preventing antioxidants. Lycopene is strong antioxidants now a day’s used in treating cancer. Lanthanides are also used for treating cancers. Antioxidants help in keeping erythrocytes in healthy condition by preventing them from free radicals. Antioxidants also help preventing coronary artery disease. Use of antioxidants has help in preventing the side effect’s caused by the chemotherapy used in cancer treatment and had shown less acidity related problem in patients. Therefore antioxidants play a vital role for improving health and in treatments of numerous malignant and cardio logical related diseases.
by ExpertScie at 09-23-2012, 09:01 PM
1 comments
The study of effect of low temperature on the living things is kwon as cryobiology. The term is used from Greek language. Biology means study of life or living thing and cryo means cold. Practically speaking the cryobiology study the systems under low temperature conditions like below normal temperature (16-20 °C). The systems which are studied may be cells, tissues, organs or even the biological systems like digestive, neurological etc. under low temperature. The range of temperature varies from hypothermic to extreme cold condition like cryogenic temperature condition.
The adaptation of microorganisms, plants, animals including invertebrates and vertebrates as well as animal’s hibernation are studied and research is being done to know the methods of their adaptation to such extreme conditions. With the research, new biomolecules are being identified which are helping organisms to survive in extreme cool environment. The preservation of cells, tissues, gametes, and other embryos of animals and human being are done to use them as and when required. Many microorganism like useful strains of pharmaceutical, agricultural and industrial field which are capable of producing high quantity as well as high quality products are being lyophilized and stored at extreme cold condition like minus one eighty degree Celsius .As per the schedules of production batches, these preserved bacterial strains are removed and used for production. The process of preservation of cells or microorganism reduces the metabolism almost up to zero level such that the entire cell goes into dormant phase with no metabolism and can thus survive for years. Many other cryoprotectants are also put along with during preservation so as to protect the cells during extreme cold condition as well as at the time of thawing.
Lyophilization i.e freeze drying is commonly done in pharmaceutical industries. In this process, complete drying of cell is done under vacuum and -40°C condition then aseptically the lyophils are sealed with the help of blue flame produced from optimized LPG and Oxygen concentration. This sealing which is done in aseptic condition helps to avoid unwanted contamination and thus maintain the purity of preserved products, cells or microbes. Many a times organs which are very critical and delicate are required in emergency for patients. These are preserved in extreme cold conditions to save the patient’s life with transplantation of organs. One of the very famous methods in surgery using cold condition is being followed worldwide. This is known as cryosurgery. In this process, a very little invasion is done and destruction of unwanted or abnormal tissue is done using cryogenic fluids and gases like liquid nitrogen.
Today many organisms are found in extreme cold conditions and that too without any significant problem of survival. These properties are due to some specific biochemical mechanism within the body. This is done with the accumulation of anti nucleating proteins, glucose, polyols and other cryoprotectants which helps organisms to keep them alive even in extreme cold conditions or without any frost damage to their cells or tissues due to sharp crystals of ice. Many bacteria like Pseudomonas syringae , Carnobacterium pleistocenium , Chryseobacterium greenlandensis etc., are surviving for thousands of years in frozen ice of Antarctica and reproduce once the favorable conditions are provided. These are because of their capability to produce ice nucleators and specific proteins. This type of freezing can damage epithelia of plants or habitats were they survive and make necessary minute nutrients available for themselves. The fungus gnat Exechia nugatoria is capable of survival at -50°C with the help of unique mechanism in which the crystals of ice are formed in the body only and not at the head which is more sensitive to cold conditions.
The main challenge of cryobiology is the preservation of cells without any damage to the properties and characteristics of product under preservation. The storage at hypothermic condition has a thumb rule that is after every 10°C reduction in temperature, 50 % decrease in oxygen consumption takes place. Therefore the tissues or organs which are preserved needs special molecules which will take care of acidosis and increased calcium level of the cell. For this type of preservation, today many solutions like HTK, Viaspan and Celsior are widely used with success. These solutions also help to reduce the damage due to free radicals. Thus preservation of vital cells, organs is the best way to keep life healthy incase emergency situations and in the development of healthcare fields.
The adaptation of microorganisms, plants, animals including invertebrates and vertebrates as well as animal’s hibernation are studied and research is being done to know the methods of their adaptation to such extreme conditions. With the research, new biomolecules are being identified which are helping organisms to survive in extreme cool environment. The preservation of cells, tissues, gametes, and other embryos of animals and human being are done to use them as and when required. Many microorganism like useful strains of pharmaceutical, agricultural and industrial field which are capable of producing high quantity as well as high quality products are being lyophilized and stored at extreme cold condition like minus one eighty degree Celsius .As per the schedules of production batches, these preserved bacterial strains are removed and used for production. The process of preservation of cells or microorganism reduces the metabolism almost up to zero level such that the entire cell goes into dormant phase with no metabolism and can thus survive for years. Many other cryoprotectants are also put along with during preservation so as to protect the cells during extreme cold condition as well as at the time of thawing.
Lyophilization i.e freeze drying is commonly done in pharmaceutical industries. In this process, complete drying of cell is done under vacuum and -40°C condition then aseptically the lyophils are sealed with the help of blue flame produced from optimized LPG and Oxygen concentration. This sealing which is done in aseptic condition helps to avoid unwanted contamination and thus maintain the purity of preserved products, cells or microbes. Many a times organs which are very critical and delicate are required in emergency for patients. These are preserved in extreme cold conditions to save the patient’s life with transplantation of organs. One of the very famous methods in surgery using cold condition is being followed worldwide. This is known as cryosurgery. In this process, a very little invasion is done and destruction of unwanted or abnormal tissue is done using cryogenic fluids and gases like liquid nitrogen.
Today many organisms are found in extreme cold conditions and that too without any significant problem of survival. These properties are due to some specific biochemical mechanism within the body. This is done with the accumulation of anti nucleating proteins, glucose, polyols and other cryoprotectants which helps organisms to keep them alive even in extreme cold conditions or without any frost damage to their cells or tissues due to sharp crystals of ice. Many bacteria like Pseudomonas syringae , Carnobacterium pleistocenium , Chryseobacterium greenlandensis etc., are surviving for thousands of years in frozen ice of Antarctica and reproduce once the favorable conditions are provided. These are because of their capability to produce ice nucleators and specific proteins. This type of freezing can damage epithelia of plants or habitats were they survive and make necessary minute nutrients available for themselves. The fungus gnat Exechia nugatoria is capable of survival at -50°C with the help of unique mechanism in which the crystals of ice are formed in the body only and not at the head which is more sensitive to cold conditions.
The main challenge of cryobiology is the preservation of cells without any damage to the properties and characteristics of product under preservation. The storage at hypothermic condition has a thumb rule that is after every 10°C reduction in temperature, 50 % decrease in oxygen consumption takes place. Therefore the tissues or organs which are preserved needs special molecules which will take care of acidosis and increased calcium level of the cell. For this type of preservation, today many solutions like HTK, Viaspan and Celsior are widely used with success. These solutions also help to reduce the damage due to free radicals. Thus preservation of vital cells, organs is the best way to keep life healthy incase emergency situations and in the development of healthcare fields.
by ExpertScie at 09-23-2012, 06:50 PM
1 comments
With the new innovations in the field of biotechnology, today its applications are being used in various disciplines of science. One of the well known field were biotechnology is immensely used is pharmaceutical. Today with the help of biotechnology, many pharmaceutical products are being produced on large scale and are used worldwide for the well being of mankind as well as animals. In doing so, the biotechnology uses not only the recent technology but also many genetically mutated microorganisms. One of such microorganism which is very much suitable in biotechnology industry is Escherichia coli.
The selection of E.coli in various experiments and research is due to some unique characteristics of this microorganism. One of this is less time required for its reproduction. This property helps scientists to conclude on their experiments early as compared to life cycle of other microorganisms. Another unique characteristic is adaptation to various genomic changes and to their plasmids. This helps in doing experiments with larger range of genes under test. Today with such application of biotechnology and selection of specific microorganisms, many pharmaceutical products are dependent on these factors only.
Today diabetes is one of the major diseases all over the world. It has been estimated that two hundred and five million peoples in the world have diabetes .These lives are today being saved with the help of biotechnology based pharmaceutical products and with the innovations in this field. Insulin crystals are today being produced at large scale with the help of biotechnology. The use of recombinant DNA technology is being done to modify the genome of microorganisms like Escherichia coli for the production of human insulin. Before this development in biotech, the insulin was extracted from pancreas of cattles, pets and other farm animals. There was the issue of biocompatibility with the use of animal extracted insulin. This has been resolved by biotechnology based insulin production. The allergic reaction is today negligible with the use of biotech based insulin.
Biotechnology application is done to produce artificial genes which are responsible for the two protein chains that make a insulin. These artificial genes are then inserted into the bacteria like E.coli with the help of enzymes and plasmids. The genes which are activated with saccharides like lactose are selected sites for the insertion of these artificial genes. This helps in activation of genes which are responsible for insulin production. The use of recombinant plasmids is done which helps E.coli to produce large amount of molecules of chain A or chain B insulin of humans. These two protein chains are latter joint to make human insulin which is biocompatible as well as effective, safe and of high quality.
Apart from insulin, many hormones are also produced in large scale in pharmaceutical industry with the help of biotechnology. These hormones are human growth hormones. Earlier , these hormones were manufactured by the method of extraction from glands like pituitary gland of cadavers. But these were many times resulted in hypersensitivity and were ineffective for human use. The requirement was high as compared to pituitary extraction which was less from animals.
Restriction enzyme known as HaeIII which act at site “in the 3’ region (non coding), and also at the codon 23rd of complementary DNA responsible for growth hormone. Thus with the use of restriction enzymes as well as the site of genome for action, synthesis of hybrid gene is done which is responsible for the production of human growth hormones. In this process also micro organism E. coli is preferred.
Hemophilia patients use to receive blood clotting factor from another healthy person prior to development of DNA recombination technology. This was having risk of HIV transfer due to inadequate screening for HIV. With the development of biotechnology, many such products are manufactured at large scale which helps patients to cure from diseases like Hemophilia in which blood clotting is the problem. Today with the human genomic mapping and identification of genes responsible for production of blood clotting factors, it is possible to produce such molecules which help patients in blood clotting. Factor IX was produced successfully using recombinant technology. With research in biotech this technique was developed and today in many places, FDA approved blood clotting factors are being manufactured and are completely safe for human use and treatments of patients with Hemophilia.
Transgenic farm animals are today used for production of many useful pharmaceutical products like substitutes of bloods like hemoglobin etc. The world of pharmaceutical and health care is changing its shape towards perfection only with the tools and innovations within biotechnology. Really biotechnology and related pharmaceutical products seems to be two sides of one coin!
The selection of E.coli in various experiments and research is due to some unique characteristics of this microorganism. One of this is less time required for its reproduction. This property helps scientists to conclude on their experiments early as compared to life cycle of other microorganisms. Another unique characteristic is adaptation to various genomic changes and to their plasmids. This helps in doing experiments with larger range of genes under test. Today with such application of biotechnology and selection of specific microorganisms, many pharmaceutical products are dependent on these factors only.
Today diabetes is one of the major diseases all over the world. It has been estimated that two hundred and five million peoples in the world have diabetes .These lives are today being saved with the help of biotechnology based pharmaceutical products and with the innovations in this field. Insulin crystals are today being produced at large scale with the help of biotechnology. The use of recombinant DNA technology is being done to modify the genome of microorganisms like Escherichia coli for the production of human insulin. Before this development in biotech, the insulin was extracted from pancreas of cattles, pets and other farm animals. There was the issue of biocompatibility with the use of animal extracted insulin. This has been resolved by biotechnology based insulin production. The allergic reaction is today negligible with the use of biotech based insulin.
Biotechnology application is done to produce artificial genes which are responsible for the two protein chains that make a insulin. These artificial genes are then inserted into the bacteria like E.coli with the help of enzymes and plasmids. The genes which are activated with saccharides like lactose are selected sites for the insertion of these artificial genes. This helps in activation of genes which are responsible for insulin production. The use of recombinant plasmids is done which helps E.coli to produce large amount of molecules of chain A or chain B insulin of humans. These two protein chains are latter joint to make human insulin which is biocompatible as well as effective, safe and of high quality.
Apart from insulin, many hormones are also produced in large scale in pharmaceutical industry with the help of biotechnology. These hormones are human growth hormones. Earlier , these hormones were manufactured by the method of extraction from glands like pituitary gland of cadavers. But these were many times resulted in hypersensitivity and were ineffective for human use. The requirement was high as compared to pituitary extraction which was less from animals.
Restriction enzyme known as HaeIII which act at site “in the 3’ region (non coding), and also at the codon 23rd of complementary DNA responsible for growth hormone. Thus with the use of restriction enzymes as well as the site of genome for action, synthesis of hybrid gene is done which is responsible for the production of human growth hormones. In this process also micro organism E. coli is preferred.
Hemophilia patients use to receive blood clotting factor from another healthy person prior to development of DNA recombination technology. This was having risk of HIV transfer due to inadequate screening for HIV. With the development of biotechnology, many such products are manufactured at large scale which helps patients to cure from diseases like Hemophilia in which blood clotting is the problem. Today with the human genomic mapping and identification of genes responsible for production of blood clotting factors, it is possible to produce such molecules which help patients in blood clotting. Factor IX was produced successfully using recombinant technology. With research in biotech this technique was developed and today in many places, FDA approved blood clotting factors are being manufactured and are completely safe for human use and treatments of patients with Hemophilia.
Transgenic farm animals are today used for production of many useful pharmaceutical products like substitutes of bloods like hemoglobin etc. The world of pharmaceutical and health care is changing its shape towards perfection only with the tools and innovations within biotechnology. Really biotechnology and related pharmaceutical products seems to be two sides of one coin!
by ExpertScie at 09-23-2012, 06:43 PM
2 comments
In due course of evolution of living world, Venom had played the most important role in many aspects of life. It is mainly formed in the body as a defense mechanism as well as a weapon to get the food to survive.
During Evolution many species have develop their unique type of venom. These species are of reptiles, spiders, fishes, insects or even some species of birds and mammals. All venoms have one role to play as a common and that is to protect themselves from the predator. Different types of venoms have different mode of action on the body, such as they can be Neurotoxins, Cardio toxins, Nephrotoxins, and Neurotoxins etc., These venoms are made from different proteins having different three dimensional structure which when enter in the body can cause the damage to living organism. But many of recent research has focus light on its use as medicine if applied in micron quantity.
Basically venoms are biological proteins when enter in the body can attack any specific biochemical reaction or pathway within the body of organism and stops or altered the reaction so the main function of the organ or body will halted , due to which organism either get paralyzed or get dead. This specific property of venom has been correlated to the modern medicine or drugs. All types of drugs have a specific action on the body or system which is used as treatment to cure a disease or disorder.
Today many types of drugs have been formulated for various purposes of treatments; most of these drugs are mainly used as pain killers, many research shown venoms use in cancer treatment, cardiovascular, neurological, diabetes, and hypertension related issues. Modern science has started to discover venoms as a new way to treat these types of diseases or disorders by using their mode of action on the body. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE inhibitors) is the best drug class derived from peptide lead of venom, exenatide, a synthetic analogue of Exendin-4, is today widely used as treatment of type 2 diabetes. This is obtained from a venomous lizard, the Gila Monster, from the deserts of the Southwest USA and Mexico, has passed clinical trials and is now approved medicine for diabetes.
Many types of venom are now studied for their three-dimensional structure, there mode of action and their specific organs or receptor in the body where venoms act, so the same can be exploited for the purpose of treatment. Venom study have open vast field of biological science, many research have initiated on this front of biology. Lot of venoms from various reptiles have been studied now for their effect on blood, many types of venoms from snakes have proved to have help in reducing the viscosity of blood, (thinning effect), some sort of venom use as an anticoagulant, some venoms have direct effect on nerve conduction and have a selective effect on nervous system, which are now in use as a nerve stimulant. Venoms are now studied for their effect on hypertensions so can be used as a drug for blood pressure treatment. Another venoms or toxins from various species and not only from reptiles also prove to be useful. Scorpion venom are also open a new way for pain killer, it is now compare with morphine. Venoms from spiders also shown important get way to treat heart patients as some peptide from their toxins have help to elevate blood pressure and can be use in treating the atrial fibrillation. Some venom has proven that they can inhibit the cell growth which can be used in treating the cancer.
In modern age of science with the help of genetic engineering and protein engineering many venoms are now studied , during their studies various new learning have come which are again helping us to learn and understand how naturally formed venoms can be used as effective medicine for us to treat various illness today we are facing. Venoms are compositions of various proteins, some proteins found in the same venoms are very helpful which can be use as a drug, portion of the venom from deaths talker (scorpion) has the ability to treat the brain cancer. Venom from cobra snake has shown some promise in arthritis treatment.
All drugs have some sort of side effect in their use, but Venom has less or no side effect as such due to their high selectivity. This type of study have not only given us new way of thinking, new way of treatments but all this biodiversity and its immense correlation with the nature will definitely help us to build a healthy word to live which will be free from acute diseases.
During Evolution many species have develop their unique type of venom. These species are of reptiles, spiders, fishes, insects or even some species of birds and mammals. All venoms have one role to play as a common and that is to protect themselves from the predator. Different types of venoms have different mode of action on the body, such as they can be Neurotoxins, Cardio toxins, Nephrotoxins, and Neurotoxins etc., These venoms are made from different proteins having different three dimensional structure which when enter in the body can cause the damage to living organism. But many of recent research has focus light on its use as medicine if applied in micron quantity.
Basically venoms are biological proteins when enter in the body can attack any specific biochemical reaction or pathway within the body of organism and stops or altered the reaction so the main function of the organ or body will halted , due to which organism either get paralyzed or get dead. This specific property of venom has been correlated to the modern medicine or drugs. All types of drugs have a specific action on the body or system which is used as treatment to cure a disease or disorder.
Today many types of drugs have been formulated for various purposes of treatments; most of these drugs are mainly used as pain killers, many research shown venoms use in cancer treatment, cardiovascular, neurological, diabetes, and hypertension related issues. Modern science has started to discover venoms as a new way to treat these types of diseases or disorders by using their mode of action on the body. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE inhibitors) is the best drug class derived from peptide lead of venom, exenatide, a synthetic analogue of Exendin-4, is today widely used as treatment of type 2 diabetes. This is obtained from a venomous lizard, the Gila Monster, from the deserts of the Southwest USA and Mexico, has passed clinical trials and is now approved medicine for diabetes.
Many types of venom are now studied for their three-dimensional structure, there mode of action and their specific organs or receptor in the body where venoms act, so the same can be exploited for the purpose of treatment. Venom study have open vast field of biological science, many research have initiated on this front of biology. Lot of venoms from various reptiles have been studied now for their effect on blood, many types of venoms from snakes have proved to have help in reducing the viscosity of blood, (thinning effect), some sort of venom use as an anticoagulant, some venoms have direct effect on nerve conduction and have a selective effect on nervous system, which are now in use as a nerve stimulant. Venoms are now studied for their effect on hypertensions so can be used as a drug for blood pressure treatment. Another venoms or toxins from various species and not only from reptiles also prove to be useful. Scorpion venom are also open a new way for pain killer, it is now compare with morphine. Venoms from spiders also shown important get way to treat heart patients as some peptide from their toxins have help to elevate blood pressure and can be use in treating the atrial fibrillation. Some venom has proven that they can inhibit the cell growth which can be used in treating the cancer.
In modern age of science with the help of genetic engineering and protein engineering many venoms are now studied , during their studies various new learning have come which are again helping us to learn and understand how naturally formed venoms can be used as effective medicine for us to treat various illness today we are facing. Venoms are compositions of various proteins, some proteins found in the same venoms are very helpful which can be use as a drug, portion of the venom from deaths talker (scorpion) has the ability to treat the brain cancer. Venom from cobra snake has shown some promise in arthritis treatment.
All drugs have some sort of side effect in their use, but Venom has less or no side effect as such due to their high selectivity. This type of study have not only given us new way of thinking, new way of treatments but all this biodiversity and its immense correlation with the nature will definitely help us to build a healthy word to live which will be free from acute diseases.
by nihila at 09-23-2012, 06:16 PM
2 comments
Toxicology is the study of natural or chemical substances that affect an organism in an adverse way. It includes the study of symptoms that occur after the ingestion of the chemical, the mechanism of the chemical inside the body, detecting the chemical in the body and the treatment to be given.
These substances which act as poisons are called toxins as they are toxic. These chemical toxins include
• Inorganic substances like heavy metals (mercury, arsenic, cadmium, etc.), salts (oxides of metals, sulfates of metals, etc.), ammonia, nitrites, etc.
• Organic substances like pesticides, herbicides, preservatives, antibiotics, bio toxins, artificial colors, benzene, xylene, organic heavy metals, carcinogenic compounds, etc.
There are two types of toxins - Endogenous toxins which are produced with in the body as biochemical byproducts which can accumulate in the joints or muscles and exogenous toxins external toxins which ingested or absorbed by the body in the form of water, air, food, drugs etc.
Toxicology has different branches –
Clinical toxicology-
It deals with emergencies occurring due to overdoses of drugs, poisonings. It also deals with identifying the compound and the amount of toxin present in the body.
Also deals with study of signs and symptoms of occurring due to the toxin and how to control the poison.
Forensic toxicology-
It is a branch of forensic science that deals with the study of the cause of death, extracting the toxin from the specimens, amount of poison present and identifying the poison is the main aspect. These studies will lead to the relation between residual levels of the toxins and the cause of death.
Chemical toxicology-
This deals with the study of chemical toxins, their structure, the mechanism of these toxins and the toxic effects on the living organisms.
Aquatic toxicology –
As the name suggests this deals with the study of effects of toxins on the aquatic organisms. These toxins may be either from manufactured chemicals or can be natural materials. It also deals with the study of the effects of toxins at subcellular level of the individual aquatic organisms.
Ecotoxicology-
This branch deals with the study of the effect of toxins at all levels of biological organization from molecular level to the level of the ecosystem.
Industrial toxicology-
This deals with the study of effects of chemicals released from the industries on the environment and the living organisms. It also deals with the safety of workers of the industry, their exposure to the chemicals, the safety measures to be taken while working.
Environmental toxicology-
This branch deals with the study of the toxic effects of various substances on the environment. Deals with the study of effects of pollution of water, soil, air and the effects of pollutants on the living organisms, wildlife and deals with the movement of chemicals in the environment and their residual time.
Biochemical and molecular toxicology-
This deals with the study of determining the modes of action of the toxins, the effect of the toxins at molecular levels. This will include the effects of different toxins on the DNA level i.e. the mutations that can be caused to the genes, treating the defected genes, etc.
Product development toxicology-
This branch of toxicology deals with the study of effects of the chemicals and drugs on the organisms before released to the market. This will lead to the improvement of the product to decrease the level of any harmful effects that may be caused by the product. This includes the evaluation of the toxic potential of a drug and the chemicals used to prepare the drug. This will help establish the safe amount of the drug that can be used.
Regulatory toxicology-
This deals with the regulating i.e. deciphering and analyzing the data of toxins for risk estimation, the thresholds of solvent vapors in industries and the safe level of drugs for organisms.
Toxicogenomics-
This deals with the gene and molecular profiling of the toxins.
Toxicology is that branch of science which is included in every aspect of life of all the organisms as there are so many toxins affecting the lives. Many of these substances are used in our daily lives as necessary items, these if used in the level of safe dosage helps us and more than the safe dosage of anything taken is harmful to the organisms and its effects can be temporary, permanent and some may be lethal.
These substances which act as poisons are called toxins as they are toxic. These chemical toxins include
• Inorganic substances like heavy metals (mercury, arsenic, cadmium, etc.), salts (oxides of metals, sulfates of metals, etc.), ammonia, nitrites, etc.
• Organic substances like pesticides, herbicides, preservatives, antibiotics, bio toxins, artificial colors, benzene, xylene, organic heavy metals, carcinogenic compounds, etc.
There are two types of toxins - Endogenous toxins which are produced with in the body as biochemical byproducts which can accumulate in the joints or muscles and exogenous toxins external toxins which ingested or absorbed by the body in the form of water, air, food, drugs etc.
Toxicology has different branches –
Clinical toxicology-
It deals with emergencies occurring due to overdoses of drugs, poisonings. It also deals with identifying the compound and the amount of toxin present in the body.
Also deals with study of signs and symptoms of occurring due to the toxin and how to control the poison.
Forensic toxicology-
It is a branch of forensic science that deals with the study of the cause of death, extracting the toxin from the specimens, amount of poison present and identifying the poison is the main aspect. These studies will lead to the relation between residual levels of the toxins and the cause of death.
Chemical toxicology-
This deals with the study of chemical toxins, their structure, the mechanism of these toxins and the toxic effects on the living organisms.
Aquatic toxicology –
As the name suggests this deals with the study of effects of toxins on the aquatic organisms. These toxins may be either from manufactured chemicals or can be natural materials. It also deals with the study of the effects of toxins at subcellular level of the individual aquatic organisms.
Ecotoxicology-
This branch deals with the study of the effect of toxins at all levels of biological organization from molecular level to the level of the ecosystem.
Industrial toxicology-
This deals with the study of effects of chemicals released from the industries on the environment and the living organisms. It also deals with the safety of workers of the industry, their exposure to the chemicals, the safety measures to be taken while working.
Environmental toxicology-
This branch deals with the study of the toxic effects of various substances on the environment. Deals with the study of effects of pollution of water, soil, air and the effects of pollutants on the living organisms, wildlife and deals with the movement of chemicals in the environment and their residual time.
Biochemical and molecular toxicology-
This deals with the study of determining the modes of action of the toxins, the effect of the toxins at molecular levels. This will include the effects of different toxins on the DNA level i.e. the mutations that can be caused to the genes, treating the defected genes, etc.
Product development toxicology-
This branch of toxicology deals with the study of effects of the chemicals and drugs on the organisms before released to the market. This will lead to the improvement of the product to decrease the level of any harmful effects that may be caused by the product. This includes the evaluation of the toxic potential of a drug and the chemicals used to prepare the drug. This will help establish the safe amount of the drug that can be used.
Regulatory toxicology-
This deals with the regulating i.e. deciphering and analyzing the data of toxins for risk estimation, the thresholds of solvent vapors in industries and the safe level of drugs for organisms.
Toxicogenomics-
This deals with the gene and molecular profiling of the toxins.
Toxicology is that branch of science which is included in every aspect of life of all the organisms as there are so many toxins affecting the lives. Many of these substances are used in our daily lives as necessary items, these if used in the level of safe dosage helps us and more than the safe dosage of anything taken is harmful to the organisms and its effects can be temporary, permanent and some may be lethal.
by ExpertScie at 09-23-2012, 04:16 PM
1 comments
The accidental changes which occurs in the sequence of deoxyribose nucleic acids (DNA) results in mutation. Mutation occurs in the DNA of cell due to many factors like Mutagenic chemicals, radiation, viruses, transposons and also due to errors which may occur during cell division that is meiosis or replication of DNA. Many a times these are induced by organism itself by the process which is known as hyper mutation.
Mutation can be beneficial as well as harmful. The effect of change in protein sequence due to mutation may be sometimes beneficial in certain circumstances and environments. Many a times the organism has to fight against the extreme conditions (in which he lives) for his survival. And the one which is fittest survive. This fitness many a times occurs due to changes in genomic sequence and results in production of certain proteins or phenotypes which helps this mutant organism to survive in such extreme conditions as compared to its wild type. Such mutants are capable to withstand stressful environments and thus become fit for survival. Such mutation becomes common in the said population and further results in natural selection.
The very interesting example of such mutation which is beneficial is CCR5 mutation in humans. These occur with the deletion of 32 pairs. Such mutation having humans are more resistant to HIV infection and also in their heterozygotes, the onset of AIDS is delayed. Also this type of mutation occurs more in European sides. One reason for this was the resistance of these peoples to bubonic plague which occurred more in Europe than African countries. The frequency of this mutation increased within the population. With the research and development in this field, later it was suggested that the mutation in CCR5 occurred due to smallpox and may not be because of bubonic plague.
Sickle cell disease is another such example of beneficial mutation. Those with one of the alleles out of the two are particularly more resistant to malaria. The reason for this was mutation. The sickle cell disease which is a blood disorder produces abnormal substances similar to hemoglobin which are capable of oxygen carrying within the red blood cells. In sub Sahara Africa, one third of all carry this gene. In this area malaria is common and since the infestation of malarial plasmodium is avoided by cell sickling.
Another benefit of mutation is that, there is development in repair system which occurs naturally within the organism as compared to the initial repair process. It has been estimated that if the gene which is responsible for protein formation is damaged or mutated, the results is that 70 percent of the times it is harmful and rest 30 percent it is either neutral or slightly beneficial. Prevention of mutation occurs by an automatic method within the organism known as repair system.
Mutation which is non lethal increases the gene pool and also helps in increasing the variation among the population. The more the number of genetic changes happens in specified gene pool, the more reduced natural selection occurs. On the other hand, the mutations which are favorable and keeps on accumulation many a times results in changes which helps in adaptation.
One of the interesting examples of this is color of butterfly’s offspring. Many a times butterfly produces offspring’s having effect of mutations. Maximum times this mutation will have no harmful effects, but it may results in change in the color of any of the butterfly’s offspring and further it may help him to escape from the predator due to changes in color which makes it difficult for predator to recognize the prey or ironically saying mutated prey. Thus the mutation of these type results in survival of butterfly and produces its offspring’s better. With the increase in the number of such butterfly (mutated), they may become the larger percentage within their population and can survive in better way. Many a time’s beneficial mutation helps the population to increase reproductive success also. Even though mutation may be beneficial may a times, it does not mean all mutations are beneficial and therefore for the same the organism has a repair mechanism to avoid such mutations.
Mutation can be beneficial as well as harmful. The effect of change in protein sequence due to mutation may be sometimes beneficial in certain circumstances and environments. Many a times the organism has to fight against the extreme conditions (in which he lives) for his survival. And the one which is fittest survive. This fitness many a times occurs due to changes in genomic sequence and results in production of certain proteins or phenotypes which helps this mutant organism to survive in such extreme conditions as compared to its wild type. Such mutants are capable to withstand stressful environments and thus become fit for survival. Such mutation becomes common in the said population and further results in natural selection.
The very interesting example of such mutation which is beneficial is CCR5 mutation in humans. These occur with the deletion of 32 pairs. Such mutation having humans are more resistant to HIV infection and also in their heterozygotes, the onset of AIDS is delayed. Also this type of mutation occurs more in European sides. One reason for this was the resistance of these peoples to bubonic plague which occurred more in Europe than African countries. The frequency of this mutation increased within the population. With the research and development in this field, later it was suggested that the mutation in CCR5 occurred due to smallpox and may not be because of bubonic plague.
Sickle cell disease is another such example of beneficial mutation. Those with one of the alleles out of the two are particularly more resistant to malaria. The reason for this was mutation. The sickle cell disease which is a blood disorder produces abnormal substances similar to hemoglobin which are capable of oxygen carrying within the red blood cells. In sub Sahara Africa, one third of all carry this gene. In this area malaria is common and since the infestation of malarial plasmodium is avoided by cell sickling.
Another benefit of mutation is that, there is development in repair system which occurs naturally within the organism as compared to the initial repair process. It has been estimated that if the gene which is responsible for protein formation is damaged or mutated, the results is that 70 percent of the times it is harmful and rest 30 percent it is either neutral or slightly beneficial. Prevention of mutation occurs by an automatic method within the organism known as repair system.
Mutation which is non lethal increases the gene pool and also helps in increasing the variation among the population. The more the number of genetic changes happens in specified gene pool, the more reduced natural selection occurs. On the other hand, the mutations which are favorable and keeps on accumulation many a times results in changes which helps in adaptation.
One of the interesting examples of this is color of butterfly’s offspring. Many a times butterfly produces offspring’s having effect of mutations. Maximum times this mutation will have no harmful effects, but it may results in change in the color of any of the butterfly’s offspring and further it may help him to escape from the predator due to changes in color which makes it difficult for predator to recognize the prey or ironically saying mutated prey. Thus the mutation of these type results in survival of butterfly and produces its offspring’s better. With the increase in the number of such butterfly (mutated), they may become the larger percentage within their population and can survive in better way. Many a time’s beneficial mutation helps the population to increase reproductive success also. Even though mutation may be beneficial may a times, it does not mean all mutations are beneficial and therefore for the same the organism has a repair mechanism to avoid such mutations.
by Libby4ever21 at 09-23-2012, 02:59 AM
0 comments
These are all advancing currently, but in different fields/subfiels. Is there a way I can incorporate the practices of biotechnology, Stem Cell Research, Bioinformatics, Gene and Cell therapy, genetic engineering, genetics, biochemistry, biomedical engineering, biological engineering, nanotechnology, nanoengineering, nanobiotics and nanorobotics, in one (or 2-3) fields? I'm SURE some of those listed studies overlap eachother, or perhaps some of them aren't really separate at all. These are just *examples* of things I want to be knowledgeable in, or have SOME kind of background in (I'm not trying to be an expert/specialist in ALL of these, but I want to be able to incorporate these in my work).
I'm a freshman at a community college, simply because I refuse to go to a University/Ivy League school until I find a DEFINITE major (or majors) that will allow me to contribute to the future of technology in some way. With that being said, what would I major in at the undergraduate level, and specialize in at the graduate level? Would I have to claim multiple majors?
Thanks!
I'm a freshman at a community college, simply because I refuse to go to a University/Ivy League school until I find a DEFINITE major (or majors) that will allow me to contribute to the future of technology in some way. With that being said, what would I major in at the undergraduate level, and specialize in at the graduate level? Would I have to claim multiple majors?
Thanks!
by Charles at 09-21-2012, 05:29 PM
12 comments
Here is a list of best biotechnology companies in India. Apart from domestic companies, there are several MNC's that have opened their branches in India. Future of biotech in India is certainly very bright, but it is very important to graduate from a good institute. There are several newbie institutes offering even PHD in biotechnology, microbiology, genetics etc .. students should carefully talk to existing students of the college, check placement history, facilities and qualifications of professors before opting for one.
Some of the best Biotech Companies in India are as follows.
1. Biocon,
Bangalore, Website: www.biocon.com
2. Serum Institute of India,
Pune, Website: www.seruminstitute.com
3. Panacea Biotec
New Delhi, Website: www.panacea-biotec.com/
E-mail: corporate@panaceabiotec.com
4. Piramal Healthcare
Mumbai, Website: www.piramalhealthcare.com/
5. Wockhardt Limited
Mumbai, Website: www.wockhardt.com
6. GlaxoSmithKline
Mumbai, Website: www.gsk-india.com/
7. Bharat Serum
Mumbai, Website: www.bharatserums.com/index1.htm
8. Krebs Biochemicals and Industries Limited
Hyderabad, Website: www.krebsbiochem.com/
9. Zydus Cadila
Ahmedabad, Website: www.zyduscadila.com/
10. Indian Immunologicals
Hyderabad, Website: www.indimmune.com/
11. Monsanto Biotech
Mumbai, Website, http://www.monsantoindia.com/
12. Rasi Seeds,
Attur (TN), www.rasiseeds.com
13. Venkateshwara Hatcheries
Pune, www.venkys.com
14. Novo Nordisk
Bangalore, http://www.novonordisk.co.in
15. Indian Immunologicals
Hyderabad, www.indimmune.com/
16. TransAsia Biomedics
Mumbai , www.transasia.co.in/
17. Praj industries
Pune, www.praj.net
Other companies:
Astrazeneca India, Sisco ,Care Biomedicals, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, Brainwave Bioinformatics, Bangalore Genei, Avesthagen, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Platforms, GVK Biosciences, Indian Immunologicals Limited, Intas Biopharmaceuticals, Nuziveedu Seeds Private Limited, Reliance Life Sciences,
Shantha Biotechnics, Strand Life Sciences and VAV Life Sciences
Please add more noticeable companies (including locations and website) if I have missed any.
Some of the best Biotech Companies in India are as follows.
1. Biocon,
Bangalore, Website: www.biocon.com
2. Serum Institute of India,
Pune, Website: www.seruminstitute.com
3. Panacea Biotec
New Delhi, Website: www.panacea-biotec.com/
E-mail: corporate@panaceabiotec.com
4. Piramal Healthcare
Mumbai, Website: www.piramalhealthcare.com/
5. Wockhardt Limited
Mumbai, Website: www.wockhardt.com
6. GlaxoSmithKline
Mumbai, Website: www.gsk-india.com/
7. Bharat Serum
Mumbai, Website: www.bharatserums.com/index1.htm
8. Krebs Biochemicals and Industries Limited
Hyderabad, Website: www.krebsbiochem.com/
9. Zydus Cadila
Ahmedabad, Website: www.zyduscadila.com/
10. Indian Immunologicals
Hyderabad, Website: www.indimmune.com/
11. Monsanto Biotech
Mumbai, Website, http://www.monsantoindia.com/
12. Rasi Seeds,
Attur (TN), www.rasiseeds.com
13. Venkateshwara Hatcheries
Pune, www.venkys.com
14. Novo Nordisk
Bangalore, http://www.novonordisk.co.in
15. Indian Immunologicals
Hyderabad, www.indimmune.com/
16. TransAsia Biomedics
Mumbai , www.transasia.co.in/
17. Praj industries
Pune, www.praj.net
Other companies:
Astrazeneca India, Sisco ,Care Biomedicals, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, Brainwave Bioinformatics, Bangalore Genei, Avesthagen, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Platforms, GVK Biosciences, Indian Immunologicals Limited, Intas Biopharmaceuticals, Nuziveedu Seeds Private Limited, Reliance Life Sciences,
Shantha Biotechnics, Strand Life Sciences and VAV Life Sciences
Please add more noticeable companies (including locations and website) if I have missed any.
by jac2481 at 09-21-2012, 01:58 AM
1 comments
Hello,
I work at a community college where we will be doing some gfp protein purification.
I have been scouring the internet for a good protocol. We have a Biologic LP Chromatography System.
I know Bio-rad sells an education kit to do this process, however I am looking to pass this through our column. I will be ordering the parts needed to do so, I just need a good protocol to follow. It would be greatly appreciated if someone on here knows of one.
I hope I am not posting this in the wrong section of this forum, if I do I apologize in advance.
Thank you!
J
I work at a community college where we will be doing some gfp protein purification.
I have been scouring the internet for a good protocol. We have a Biologic LP Chromatography System.
I know Bio-rad sells an education kit to do this process, however I am looking to pass this through our column. I will be ordering the parts needed to do so, I just need a good protocol to follow. It would be greatly appreciated if someone on here knows of one.
I hope I am not posting this in the wrong section of this forum, if I do I apologize in advance.
Thank you!
J
by ExpertScie at 09-20-2012, 09:56 PM
1 comments
The use of microorganism in large scale production of food and industrial products is being done worldwide. When microorganisms are used for food production, the branch is called as food microbiology. The sources of food production in such cases may be animals or plants but the processing is done by enzymatic activities by microorganism only. Microorganism contains various enzymes which are capable of degradation of substrates. This is also known as fermentation process in which the degradations is not completed and results in useful by products. These by products include, beverages, antibiotics, milk by products etc which are used by humans as nutritive foods.
With the development of technology like genetic engineering, many mutants are developed which are capable of performing extra with respect to production quality and quantity as compared to their wild types. This isolation is either done naturally or by screening of mutants after the genetic engineering. Today pharmaceutical agents like antibiotics and other drugs are manufactured at large scale which utilizes microorganism. The history of microbiology has given us very broad spectrum antibiotics like Penicillin and Streptomycin which are still in use at large throughout the globe. This is the most useful application of microorganisms.
Foods which are originated from animals are enzymatic ally processed by specific microorganisms resulting in increase in their nutritive value. These foods are fermented foods like Yogurt, milk by products like cheese, sweet chocolates and silage. Many algae are today used as source of protein. Fungus like mushroom is today being used as source of nutrition as well as medicine. Bacteria like Lactic acid bacteria are used in production of pure curd and other milk products. Bacteria like Bifidobacteria are being used in food industry as probiotics which helps in curing of diseases of digestive systems and intestinal disorders.
Polysaccharides, polyamides, polyesters and many other varieties of biopolymers are produced by many microorganisms. These are ranging from plastics to viscous solutions. Today many researches in drug delivery and tissue engineering are being successfully done with the help of genetically manipulated microorganisms which are producing biopolymers which are having medical applications. Many wild as well as genetically mutated strains are used in industries for biosynthesis of cellulose, levan, hyaluronic acids, polysaccharides and organic acids, etc.
Today many pollutants are degraded with the help of saprophytes (specific type of bacteria/fungi capable of surviving in waste organic material their by metabolism) this process is also known as biodegradation. Today bioremediation and other methods like biotransformation are used for cleaning of the environments.
Today even heavy metals like mercury which is toxic and results in biomagnifications. The degradation of this is very costly by chemical and other standards technologies. Therefore the alternative method is bioremediation. Today in modern societies, lot of waste is being generated from domestic wastes. These are accumulating every day and are very harmful to not only the society but also the environment (Our mother earth). The processing of such waste using living organisms is known as biotreatment. These methods are helping society and saving earth from accumulation of hazardous wastes. This method of using microorganisms in degradation of hazardous waste is not only useful but also simple, cost effective and eco friendly. The systematic method of biotreatment is done with the help of bioreactors having aeration system, baffles which suitable for microbial enzymatic reaction.
Apart from waste treatments, microorganisms are used in production of biological like insulin, serum antibodies, and essential hormones. Today with the development of technology and science, new ways of diagnosis of diseases are being used for early detection using microorganism’s e.g. rapid microbial test, enzyme employed detection, etc. One of the microbe known as Clostridium is useful in treatment of malignant cells like cancers. These organisms have the ability to selectively target cancerous cells.
Microorganisms are used in large scale manufacturing of vaccines against diseases like influenza flu, polio, BCG etc. with the evolution of sophisticated technology, identification of specific antigens is being done easily which further helps in development of vaccines with the help of microorganisms.
Streptomyces genus is used worldwide in the production of medicines and agriculture. These microorganisms process many secondary metabolites like antibiotics and plant growth hormones like Gibberilla (Microorganism used is Gibberella fujikuroi). New organisms are today being detected especially from extreme conditions like high temperature, high saline, low or high pH, etc having unique characteristics which are very useful in industrial productions and ultimately for well being of mankind.
With the development of technology like genetic engineering, many mutants are developed which are capable of performing extra with respect to production quality and quantity as compared to their wild types. This isolation is either done naturally or by screening of mutants after the genetic engineering. Today pharmaceutical agents like antibiotics and other drugs are manufactured at large scale which utilizes microorganism. The history of microbiology has given us very broad spectrum antibiotics like Penicillin and Streptomycin which are still in use at large throughout the globe. This is the most useful application of microorganisms.
Foods which are originated from animals are enzymatic ally processed by specific microorganisms resulting in increase in their nutritive value. These foods are fermented foods like Yogurt, milk by products like cheese, sweet chocolates and silage. Many algae are today used as source of protein. Fungus like mushroom is today being used as source of nutrition as well as medicine. Bacteria like Lactic acid bacteria are used in production of pure curd and other milk products. Bacteria like Bifidobacteria are being used in food industry as probiotics which helps in curing of diseases of digestive systems and intestinal disorders.
Polysaccharides, polyamides, polyesters and many other varieties of biopolymers are produced by many microorganisms. These are ranging from plastics to viscous solutions. Today many researches in drug delivery and tissue engineering are being successfully done with the help of genetically manipulated microorganisms which are producing biopolymers which are having medical applications. Many wild as well as genetically mutated strains are used in industries for biosynthesis of cellulose, levan, hyaluronic acids, polysaccharides and organic acids, etc.
Today many pollutants are degraded with the help of saprophytes (specific type of bacteria/fungi capable of surviving in waste organic material their by metabolism) this process is also known as biodegradation. Today bioremediation and other methods like biotransformation are used for cleaning of the environments.
Today even heavy metals like mercury which is toxic and results in biomagnifications. The degradation of this is very costly by chemical and other standards technologies. Therefore the alternative method is bioremediation. Today in modern societies, lot of waste is being generated from domestic wastes. These are accumulating every day and are very harmful to not only the society but also the environment (Our mother earth). The processing of such waste using living organisms is known as biotreatment. These methods are helping society and saving earth from accumulation of hazardous wastes. This method of using microorganisms in degradation of hazardous waste is not only useful but also simple, cost effective and eco friendly. The systematic method of biotreatment is done with the help of bioreactors having aeration system, baffles which suitable for microbial enzymatic reaction.
Apart from waste treatments, microorganisms are used in production of biological like insulin, serum antibodies, and essential hormones. Today with the development of technology and science, new ways of diagnosis of diseases are being used for early detection using microorganism’s e.g. rapid microbial test, enzyme employed detection, etc. One of the microbe known as Clostridium is useful in treatment of malignant cells like cancers. These organisms have the ability to selectively target cancerous cells.
Microorganisms are used in large scale manufacturing of vaccines against diseases like influenza flu, polio, BCG etc. with the evolution of sophisticated technology, identification of specific antigens is being done easily which further helps in development of vaccines with the help of microorganisms.
Streptomyces genus is used worldwide in the production of medicines and agriculture. These microorganisms process many secondary metabolites like antibiotics and plant growth hormones like Gibberilla (Microorganism used is Gibberella fujikuroi). New organisms are today being detected especially from extreme conditions like high temperature, high saline, low or high pH, etc having unique characteristics which are very useful in industrial productions and ultimately for well being of mankind.
by nihila at 09-20-2012, 06:09 PM
0 comments
Understanding gene, its functions and what it is made up of.
Gene is the base stone on which life of all the living organisms is built. Each gene is an arrangement of 3 nucleotides. Every gene has a different order of nucleotide arrangement which produces different results. There are 5 nucleotides Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine and Uracil. The sequence of these nucleotides forms nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. DNA is the genetic material which has all the information about the living organism like characteristics that are visible for example, colour of skin or taste of a fruit and also the characters which are not visible like blood type. RNA is the genetic material for some viruses. The order of arrangement of these nucleotides in a nucleic acid decides what they code for, they can code for aminoacids which form proteins, enzymes etc, which are necessary for life of an organism. It also contains information of different traits of organisms which can be passed on for generations. For example, it may be disease or some quality like colour of skin or taste of a fruit. So a gene is made up a sequence of nucleotides, the arrangement of these nucleotides in different orders produces a variety of products which are essential for the life of an organism.
Why and What is cloning
Cloning refers to the replication but in cloning the resultant daughter is the exact copy of the parent in each and every aspect and without any modification. These replicas thus formed are called clones. By this method we can make clones of genes or even a whole organism can be cloned.
As for now we will concentrate on gene cloning. Let us have a look at the process of gene cloning step by step in general:
• Frist, the DNA containing the desired gene is isolated from the organism.
• It is then subjected to purification and then treated with the restriction enzyme which produces number of fragments of DNA. This enzyme breaks the DNA at some specific sites i.e. at some specific base pairs. These sites depend on the type of endonuclease enzyme used as enzyme has a specific site. These fragments thus obtained has cohesive ends or sticky ends that are single stranded with one being 3’ and another 5’.
• The next step involves isolating a plasmid. Plasmid is the DNA that is capable of replicating outside its cell. This is also called vector as it carries the fragments of DNA to be cloned.
• The isolated plasmid is then purified and subject to the same endonuclease enzyme that is used to produce fragments of the DNA containing the desired gene. The plasmid used contains only one restriction site the enzyme acts and as the same enzyme is used to produce similar cohesive ends of single strands as in the fragments with one end being 5’ and another 3’ which will enable the hybridisation between them.
• When these fragments and the plasmid are allowed to combine the cohesive ends of two start forming base pairs and these are catalysed by DNA ligase that seals them together by forming phosphodiester bonds.
• Now, the resultant DNA is to be introduced into a host cell where the replication can take place thus producing clones. The host cell is generally a bacterial cell and the process is called transformation.
• Each of the host cell contains different fragments of the DNA. These are now allowed to reproduce .
• From the reproduced cells, the cluster of cells containing the desired gene can be identified and isolated.
Where do gene cloning help-
• Gene cloning can be used to study the different genes responsible for different traits and the characteristics of an organism.
• It helps in identifying any genetic disorders or hereditary diseases and can help in finding the cure or at least the prevention.
• Gene cloning helped to produce a large amounts of insulin which is used by diabetic patients to control the sugar levels.
Gene gives life to an organism and gene cloning is helping in improving the lives of all the organisms and with all the technology at its side it will further improve the quality of lives.
Gene is the base stone on which life of all the living organisms is built. Each gene is an arrangement of 3 nucleotides. Every gene has a different order of nucleotide arrangement which produces different results. There are 5 nucleotides Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine and Uracil. The sequence of these nucleotides forms nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. DNA is the genetic material which has all the information about the living organism like characteristics that are visible for example, colour of skin or taste of a fruit and also the characters which are not visible like blood type. RNA is the genetic material for some viruses. The order of arrangement of these nucleotides in a nucleic acid decides what they code for, they can code for aminoacids which form proteins, enzymes etc, which are necessary for life of an organism. It also contains information of different traits of organisms which can be passed on for generations. For example, it may be disease or some quality like colour of skin or taste of a fruit. So a gene is made up a sequence of nucleotides, the arrangement of these nucleotides in different orders produces a variety of products which are essential for the life of an organism.
Why and What is cloning
Cloning refers to the replication but in cloning the resultant daughter is the exact copy of the parent in each and every aspect and without any modification. These replicas thus formed are called clones. By this method we can make clones of genes or even a whole organism can be cloned.
As for now we will concentrate on gene cloning. Let us have a look at the process of gene cloning step by step in general:
• Frist, the DNA containing the desired gene is isolated from the organism.
• It is then subjected to purification and then treated with the restriction enzyme which produces number of fragments of DNA. This enzyme breaks the DNA at some specific sites i.e. at some specific base pairs. These sites depend on the type of endonuclease enzyme used as enzyme has a specific site. These fragments thus obtained has cohesive ends or sticky ends that are single stranded with one being 3’ and another 5’.
• The next step involves isolating a plasmid. Plasmid is the DNA that is capable of replicating outside its cell. This is also called vector as it carries the fragments of DNA to be cloned.
• The isolated plasmid is then purified and subject to the same endonuclease enzyme that is used to produce fragments of the DNA containing the desired gene. The plasmid used contains only one restriction site the enzyme acts and as the same enzyme is used to produce similar cohesive ends of single strands as in the fragments with one end being 5’ and another 3’ which will enable the hybridisation between them.
• When these fragments and the plasmid are allowed to combine the cohesive ends of two start forming base pairs and these are catalysed by DNA ligase that seals them together by forming phosphodiester bonds.
• Now, the resultant DNA is to be introduced into a host cell where the replication can take place thus producing clones. The host cell is generally a bacterial cell and the process is called transformation.
• Each of the host cell contains different fragments of the DNA. These are now allowed to reproduce .
• From the reproduced cells, the cluster of cells containing the desired gene can be identified and isolated.
Where do gene cloning help-
• Gene cloning can be used to study the different genes responsible for different traits and the characteristics of an organism.
• It helps in identifying any genetic disorders or hereditary diseases and can help in finding the cure or at least the prevention.
• Gene cloning helped to produce a large amounts of insulin which is used by diabetic patients to control the sugar levels.
Gene gives life to an organism and gene cloning is helping in improving the lives of all the organisms and with all the technology at its side it will further improve the quality of lives.
by sixsigmaacademy at 09-20-2012, 02:41 PM
0 comments
Six sigma academy of clinical research offers professional diploma in clinical research, CDM, SAS, pharmacovigilance, regulatory and medical writing.
All courses are delt by industry experts from cognizant, accenture, Icon and Parexel.
Six sigma academy is a service partner of six sigma bio solutions Pvt.Ltd., a Contract Research Organisation (CRO) offering services for pharma,biotech and healthcare industries in medical writing & scientific communications,regulatory writing, clinical trial operations,staffing solutions,corporate training.
Six sigma academy offer professional diploma in clinical research with highest quality provided by faculty from industry (usa,uk,europe) with sophisticated lab facility with limited batch size.
MODULE I:CLINICAL RESEARCH
-- DRUG DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT
-- PRECLINICAL STUDIES
-- BASICS OF CLINICAL TRIALS & CLINICAL RESEARCH
-- TERMINOLOGY & DEFINITIONS IN CLINICAL TRIALS
-- TYPES AND PHASES OF CLINICAL TRIALS
-- GOOD CLINICAL PRACTICES (GCP)
-- CLINICAL TRIAL STATISTICS (BIOSTATS)
-- BA/BE STUDIES
-- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY&CLINICAL TRIAL DESIGN
-- CLINICAL TRIAL REGULATORY AFFAIRS
-- BIOETHICS
-- PREPARATIONS & PLANNING FOR CLINICAL TRIALS
-- ESSENTIAL DOCUMENTATION IN CLINICAL TRIALS & REGULATORY SUBMISSIONS
-- CLINICAL TRIAL OPERATIONS AND MONITORING
-- RESPONSIBILITIES OF CLINICAL RESEARCH PROFESSIONALS
-- 21 CFR 11
-- INTRODUCTION TO CDISC
-- INFORMED CONSENT FORM
-- SCHEDULE Y
-- PROTOCOL DEVELOPMENT
-- INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPR) AND PATENT LAWS
MODULE II: CLINICAL DATA MANAGEMENT
-- INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE
-- DATA MANAGEMENT PLAN
-- EDC (ELECTRONIC DATA CAPTURE)
-- CRF DESIGN (PAPER)
-- E-CRF DEVELOPMENT
-- REPORT CREATION AND DATA TRANSFER
-- DATA CLEANING
-- STUDY LOCKING
-- OPEN CLINICA (COMPREHENSIVE THEORY AND PRACTICAL)
-- ORACLE CLINICAL , RAVE,INFORM,MEDRIO (OVERVIEW)
-- SYSTEM VALIDATION
MODULE III: SAS
-- SAS 9.1.3 / SAS 9.2
-- SAS/BASE
-- SAS/STAT
-- SAS/PROCEDURES
-- SAS/ACCESS
-- SAS/SQL
-- SAS/GRAPH
-- SAS/MACROS
-- SAS ENTERPRISE GUIDE 4.1
MODULE IV: PHARMACOVIGILANCE
-- OVERVIEW OF PHARMACOVIGILANCE
-- REGULATORY ASPECTS IN PHARMACOVIGILANCE
-- PERIODIC SAFETY UPDATE REPORTS (PSUR’S)
-- SUSPECTED UNEXPECTED SERIOUS ADVERSE REACTIONS
-- CASE REPORT PROCESSING
-- EUDRA VIGILANCE
-- SIGNAL DETECTION PROCESS AND TOOLS
-- SAFETY INTELLIGENCE
-- OVERVIEW OF PHARMACOVIGILANCE S/W
MODULE V: MEDICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND REGULATORY WRITING
-- INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL WRITING
-- MANUSCRIPT WRITING
-- SCIENTIFIC SLIDES
-- BRANDING AND COMMERCIAL WRITING
-- GRANT WRITING
-- PATIENT NARRATIVES
-- INTRODUCTION TO REGULATORY WRITING
-- INVESTIGATOR BROCHURE (IB) PREPARATION
-- CLINICAL STUDY REPORTS (CSR)
-- PROTOCOL WRITING
-- COMMON TECHNICAL DOCUMENT (CTD/ ECTD PREPARATION
-- DOSSIER SUBMISSIONS (IND/NDA/ANDA)
-- ICF TRANSLATIONS
Call us for more info @ 9989021111
E-mail us : sixsigmabioacademy@gmail.com
training@sixsigmabioacademy.com
www.sixsigmabioacademy.com
All courses are delt by industry experts from cognizant, accenture, Icon and Parexel.
Six sigma academy is a service partner of six sigma bio solutions Pvt.Ltd., a Contract Research Organisation (CRO) offering services for pharma,biotech and healthcare industries in medical writing & scientific communications,regulatory writing, clinical trial operations,staffing solutions,corporate training.
Six sigma academy offer professional diploma in clinical research with highest quality provided by faculty from industry (usa,uk,europe) with sophisticated lab facility with limited batch size.
MODULE I:CLINICAL RESEARCH
-- DRUG DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT
-- PRECLINICAL STUDIES
-- BASICS OF CLINICAL TRIALS & CLINICAL RESEARCH
-- TERMINOLOGY & DEFINITIONS IN CLINICAL TRIALS
-- TYPES AND PHASES OF CLINICAL TRIALS
-- GOOD CLINICAL PRACTICES (GCP)
-- CLINICAL TRIAL STATISTICS (BIOSTATS)
-- BA/BE STUDIES
-- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY&CLINICAL TRIAL DESIGN
-- CLINICAL TRIAL REGULATORY AFFAIRS
-- BIOETHICS
-- PREPARATIONS & PLANNING FOR CLINICAL TRIALS
-- ESSENTIAL DOCUMENTATION IN CLINICAL TRIALS & REGULATORY SUBMISSIONS
-- CLINICAL TRIAL OPERATIONS AND MONITORING
-- RESPONSIBILITIES OF CLINICAL RESEARCH PROFESSIONALS
-- 21 CFR 11
-- INTRODUCTION TO CDISC
-- INFORMED CONSENT FORM
-- SCHEDULE Y
-- PROTOCOL DEVELOPMENT
-- INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPR) AND PATENT LAWS
MODULE II: CLINICAL DATA MANAGEMENT
-- INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE
-- DATA MANAGEMENT PLAN
-- EDC (ELECTRONIC DATA CAPTURE)
-- CRF DESIGN (PAPER)
-- E-CRF DEVELOPMENT
-- REPORT CREATION AND DATA TRANSFER
-- DATA CLEANING
-- STUDY LOCKING
-- OPEN CLINICA (COMPREHENSIVE THEORY AND PRACTICAL)
-- ORACLE CLINICAL , RAVE,INFORM,MEDRIO (OVERVIEW)
-- SYSTEM VALIDATION
MODULE III: SAS
-- SAS 9.1.3 / SAS 9.2
-- SAS/BASE
-- SAS/STAT
-- SAS/PROCEDURES
-- SAS/ACCESS
-- SAS/SQL
-- SAS/GRAPH
-- SAS/MACROS
-- SAS ENTERPRISE GUIDE 4.1
MODULE IV: PHARMACOVIGILANCE
-- OVERVIEW OF PHARMACOVIGILANCE
-- REGULATORY ASPECTS IN PHARMACOVIGILANCE
-- PERIODIC SAFETY UPDATE REPORTS (PSUR’S)
-- SUSPECTED UNEXPECTED SERIOUS ADVERSE REACTIONS
-- CASE REPORT PROCESSING
-- EUDRA VIGILANCE
-- SIGNAL DETECTION PROCESS AND TOOLS
-- SAFETY INTELLIGENCE
-- OVERVIEW OF PHARMACOVIGILANCE S/W
MODULE V: MEDICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND REGULATORY WRITING
-- INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL WRITING
-- MANUSCRIPT WRITING
-- SCIENTIFIC SLIDES
-- BRANDING AND COMMERCIAL WRITING
-- GRANT WRITING
-- PATIENT NARRATIVES
-- INTRODUCTION TO REGULATORY WRITING
-- INVESTIGATOR BROCHURE (IB) PREPARATION
-- CLINICAL STUDY REPORTS (CSR)
-- PROTOCOL WRITING
-- COMMON TECHNICAL DOCUMENT (CTD/ ECTD PREPARATION
-- DOSSIER SUBMISSIONS (IND/NDA/ANDA)
-- ICF TRANSLATIONS
Call us for more info @ 9989021111
E-mail us : sixsigmabioacademy@gmail.com
training@sixsigmabioacademy.com
www.sixsigmabioacademy.com
by naren001 at 09-20-2012, 12:33 AM
2 comments
Hello Guys,
Good news for fresher’s,
We are provide the online training on Pharmacovigilance. We will provide online access for the database which is very demand in present market. I feel this is a very good opportunity to all of you to expose yourself some practical and theoretical session.
... ...
Following are the details of the software which you are going to be trained.
Software: safety database
Qualifications: MSc life sciences,M.Pharma,B.Pharma,MBBS,BDS,BVMS or any related Life sciences degree.
Direct online access on the safety database.
Note: This is not PV institute. So Please don’t think commercially
If any one have interested Please contact me at +91-9810691948 or naren.bt6@gmail.com
Thanks,
Naren,
+91-9810691948,
naren.bt6@gmail.com.
Good news for fresher’s,
We are provide the online training on Pharmacovigilance. We will provide online access for the database which is very demand in present market. I feel this is a very good opportunity to all of you to expose yourself some practical and theoretical session.
... ...
Following are the details of the software which you are going to be trained.
Software: safety database
Qualifications: MSc life sciences,M.Pharma,B.Pharma,MBBS,BDS,BVMS or any related Life sciences degree.
Direct online access on the safety database.
Note: This is not PV institute. So Please don’t think commercially
If any one have interested Please contact me at +91-9810691948 or naren.bt6@gmail.com
Thanks,
Naren,
+91-9810691948,
naren.bt6@gmail.com.
by rajeevkungur at 09-17-2012, 10:03 PM
0 comments
Does anyone have pBSKS-sfi cloning vector??
If yes, it would be a great help to us if you can provide the same to us.
Thank you.
If yes, it would be a great help to us if you can provide the same to us.
Thank you.
by Reshme at 09-17-2012, 07:15 PM
1 comments
I am currently performing a salmonella mutagenicity assay and experiencing some difficulty.
I am culturing a frozen stock into nutrient broth and growing a 16 hour culture and there is growth in my broth. When culture is transferred to top agar and plated on minimal glucose base there is no growth of culture.
Does anyone have any suggestions?
Thank you!
I am culturing a frozen stock into nutrient broth and growing a 16 hour culture and there is growth in my broth. When culture is transferred to top agar and plated on minimal glucose base there is no growth of culture.
Does anyone have any suggestions?
Thank you!