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by NatashaKundi at 09-19-2010, 04:18 PM
1 comments
Gene therapy is the insertion of healthy genes into the body of the person in place of diseased genes to cure the disease. Mutations, hereditary diseases and some of the acquired diseases like cancer can be treated with gene therapy. Hemophilia is one of the hereditary diseases on which scientists are doing research so that it can be treated with gene therapy. Though gene therapy has not yet gained recognition but there are some successful cases treated with gene therapy on small scale.
Genes are the basic units of the human body which carry all the traits and characteristics of the person. They are located on chromosomes and are encoded in a special way to make proteins. When some type of mutation occurs in genes due to some reason, then they become unable to perform their normal function and as a result genetic disorders occur. There are many ways through which scientists insert genes in the body to replace faulty genes. For example, a scientist can insert a healthy gene in the body without knowing its location which has the ability to find its place and replace the diseased gene. It is the most common way of inserting the gene. Homologous recombination can be used to replace the abnormal gene with functional gene. Another way of making the gene functional is reverse transcription in which gene can be repaired and perform its normal function.
Process of gene therapy:-
Gene therapy works in following ways.
1) A gene of interest is taken which replaces the diseased gene. To perform this function, a carrier molecule called vector or plasmid is used usually virus is used for this purpose.
2) Vectors have the ability to carry the functional genes to the target cells. Viruses are the microbes which cause infection in the human body. Scientists have availed this opportunity and suppressed its pathogenic activity. This way virus can easily insert the desired gene in place of its pathogenic activity.
3) Some of the target cells like liver or lung cells are treated with viral vectors. When vector reaches the target cells, it releases its genetic material along with the foreign gene and replaces the abnormal cells.
Vectors used in Gene therapy:-
Retroviruses:-
Retrovirus can be used in gene therapy because it has the ability to make double stranded DNA from its RNA genome. This DNA can be incorporated into the host cell.
Adenoviruses:-
This virus contains double stranded DNA and causes respiratory infections. It can also be used as vector.
Similarly herpes simplex virus and adeno associated viruses can also be used as vectors to take the desired genes to the target cells.
Ethical issues in gene therapy:-
Gene therapy if applied on stem cells, it cannot pass to the next generations but if germ line cells are treated with gene therapy, the changes may pass to the next generations. For example, a person having some genetic disorder will not be able to pass its defect to the next generations. But still it is difficult because it may affect the fetus and the side effects may also cause damage to the genes of next generations. Some critics say that gene therapy means that scientists are playing with God because humans have no right to change what God has put in them.
Genes are the basic units of the human body which carry all the traits and characteristics of the person. They are located on chromosomes and are encoded in a special way to make proteins. When some type of mutation occurs in genes due to some reason, then they become unable to perform their normal function and as a result genetic disorders occur. There are many ways through which scientists insert genes in the body to replace faulty genes. For example, a scientist can insert a healthy gene in the body without knowing its location which has the ability to find its place and replace the diseased gene. It is the most common way of inserting the gene. Homologous recombination can be used to replace the abnormal gene with functional gene. Another way of making the gene functional is reverse transcription in which gene can be repaired and perform its normal function.
Process of gene therapy:-
Gene therapy works in following ways.
1) A gene of interest is taken which replaces the diseased gene. To perform this function, a carrier molecule called vector or plasmid is used usually virus is used for this purpose.
2) Vectors have the ability to carry the functional genes to the target cells. Viruses are the microbes which cause infection in the human body. Scientists have availed this opportunity and suppressed its pathogenic activity. This way virus can easily insert the desired gene in place of its pathogenic activity.
3) Some of the target cells like liver or lung cells are treated with viral vectors. When vector reaches the target cells, it releases its genetic material along with the foreign gene and replaces the abnormal cells.
Vectors used in Gene therapy:-
Retroviruses:-
Retrovirus can be used in gene therapy because it has the ability to make double stranded DNA from its RNA genome. This DNA can be incorporated into the host cell.
Adenoviruses:-
This virus contains double stranded DNA and causes respiratory infections. It can also be used as vector.
Similarly herpes simplex virus and adeno associated viruses can also be used as vectors to take the desired genes to the target cells.
Ethical issues in gene therapy:-
Gene therapy if applied on stem cells, it cannot pass to the next generations but if germ line cells are treated with gene therapy, the changes may pass to the next generations. For example, a person having some genetic disorder will not be able to pass its defect to the next generations. But still it is difficult because it may affect the fetus and the side effects may also cause damage to the genes of next generations. Some critics say that gene therapy means that scientists are playing with God because humans have no right to change what God has put in them.
by NatashaKundi at 09-19-2010, 04:17 PM
1 comments
Genetically modified crops are those crops whose genetic makeup has been altered by inserting a foreign gene using the techniques of genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology. These techniques enable the gene to be transferred from one plant specie to the other. These crops show the desired traits for which the foreign genes are inserted in them. Genetic engineering techniques have not just been applied on crops to make them genetically modified but animals have also been modified genetically to show certain traits.
Genetically modified crops show different traits and features which scientists have successfully inserted in them through foreign genes.
Disease Resistance:-
There are many microorganisms which cause diseases in plants and disable to grow in a healthy environment. Viruses, fungi and some of the bacteria cause many diseases which destroy plant growth as well as cause mutations in their genetic makeup. Scientists have made such changes in the plants’ genomes that now plants can protect themselves from suffering from any type of disease.
Pest Resistance:-
Pests are the biggest enemies of plants and they damage plants in a way that farmers face a great financial loss due to them. In many poor countries, people may starve because of the poor growth of plants. Usually chemicals are used to kill the pests but these chemicals are not only costly but they damage the plants’ health also. No consumer will be willing to buy such crops which are not up to the mark. Now scientists have made certain changes in plants’ genomes by inserting the genes of Bacillus thuringiensis which enable them to create resistance against diseases and pests naturally. Bt corn and Bt cotton are the examples of genetically modified crops.
Cold Resistance:-
When farmers plow the seeds and small seedlings emerge from these seeds then it is possible that these seedlings get damaged by the chill of the weather. For this reason, cold water fish genes have been introduced in the tobacco and potato plants to make them cold resistant. Now these plants have the ability to bear the harsh cold weather.
Herbicide tolerance:-
It is natural that along with useful cops, useless weeds and herbs also grow. To eliminate them farmers use expensive herbicides which can also damage the plants. It is also very time consuming to use herbicides. For this purpose, scientists have developed such plants which are resistant to herbicides. For example, soybeans have been genetically modified in a way that they do not get affected by the herbicides and grow in a healthy environment.
Nutrition:-
Many third world countries are suffering from starvation and malnutrition. They only rely on one food that is rice which cannot provide all the essential nutrients. It is possible that if rice has been genetically modified and essential nutrients are inserted in it, it can fulfill the needs of all necessary nutrients. Blindness is a common disease in children in third world countries. If vitamin A is inserted in rice, it can prevent the children from being blind. The rice which is genetically modified is called as golden rice which can provide essential nutrients because it contains beta carotene.
Genetically modified crops show different traits and features which scientists have successfully inserted in them through foreign genes.
Disease Resistance:-
There are many microorganisms which cause diseases in plants and disable to grow in a healthy environment. Viruses, fungi and some of the bacteria cause many diseases which destroy plant growth as well as cause mutations in their genetic makeup. Scientists have made such changes in the plants’ genomes that now plants can protect themselves from suffering from any type of disease.
Pest Resistance:-
Pests are the biggest enemies of plants and they damage plants in a way that farmers face a great financial loss due to them. In many poor countries, people may starve because of the poor growth of plants. Usually chemicals are used to kill the pests but these chemicals are not only costly but they damage the plants’ health also. No consumer will be willing to buy such crops which are not up to the mark. Now scientists have made certain changes in plants’ genomes by inserting the genes of Bacillus thuringiensis which enable them to create resistance against diseases and pests naturally. Bt corn and Bt cotton are the examples of genetically modified crops.
Cold Resistance:-
When farmers plow the seeds and small seedlings emerge from these seeds then it is possible that these seedlings get damaged by the chill of the weather. For this reason, cold water fish genes have been introduced in the tobacco and potato plants to make them cold resistant. Now these plants have the ability to bear the harsh cold weather.
Herbicide tolerance:-
It is natural that along with useful cops, useless weeds and herbs also grow. To eliminate them farmers use expensive herbicides which can also damage the plants. It is also very time consuming to use herbicides. For this purpose, scientists have developed such plants which are resistant to herbicides. For example, soybeans have been genetically modified in a way that they do not get affected by the herbicides and grow in a healthy environment.
Nutrition:-
Many third world countries are suffering from starvation and malnutrition. They only rely on one food that is rice which cannot provide all the essential nutrients. It is possible that if rice has been genetically modified and essential nutrients are inserted in it, it can fulfill the needs of all necessary nutrients. Blindness is a common disease in children in third world countries. If vitamin A is inserted in rice, it can prevent the children from being blind. The rice which is genetically modified is called as golden rice which can provide essential nutrients because it contains beta carotene.
by NatashaKundi at 09-19-2010, 04:16 PM
14 comments
Bioremediation is the branch of biotechnology which deals with the methods of solving the environmental problems. It also plays vital role in cleaning the environment from pollutants and contaminants by using the microorganisms and fungi. Bacteria are the most important microbes in this process because they break the dead materials into organic matter and nutrients. It is not necessary that all types of contaminants can be destroyed with bioremediation; heavy metals like lead and cadmium are not the type of contaminants which can be decomposed by the microorganisms. Special type of contaminants like chlorinated pesticides cab easily digested by bacteria. Similarly oil spills can also be cleaned by bacteria.
How does bioremediation work:-
For the process of bioremediation, it is necessary that microorganisms should be healthy and active so that they can perform their duty efficiently. It is not necessary that all the microorganisms detoxify the same contaminants and toxins but for different toxins there are different microorganisms because there are different habitats for different organisms.
Bioremediation can take place in two conditions that are aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In anaerobic condition, microbes need oxygen to perform their duty. If they will get oxygen in sufficient amount they will be able to easily convert the contaminants and toxins into water and carbon. In anaerobic conditions, microbes do the activity in the absence of oxygen. Chemical compounds which are present in the soil can be decomposed by bacteria under anaerobic conditions. As a result energy produces which is used by the microbes.
Types of Bioremediation:-
There are three types of bioremediation and all are used to remove toxic substances and contaminants from the environment whether they are rivers or crude oils.
Biostimulation:-
Biostimulation is the method in which bacteria are motivated to start the process of bioremediation. In this method, first he experts release nutrients and other important substances in the soil where there is need or removing the contaminants. These are in the form of gas or liquid. It increases the growth of microbes in that area. As a result bacteria and other microorganisms remove the contaminants quickly and efficiently.
Bioaugmentation:-
In some processes of bioremediation, there are some special sites where microorganisms are needed to remove the contaminants for example municipal wastewater. Bioaugmentation is used for that purpose. But unfortunately this process is not very successful as it is difficult to control the growth of microorganisms to remove the particular contaminant.
Intrinsic Bioremediation:-
The process of intrinsic bioremediation takes place in soil and water because these two places are always full of contaminants and toxins. This process is also called as natural attenuation. It also means use of the microorganisms to remove the harmful substances from soil and water. Especially those sites are treated with this method, which are underground, for example underground petroleum tanks. It is difficult to know if there is a leakage in the petroleum pipes. Contaminants and toxins find their way to enter in these sites and create harmful effects on the petrol. Therefore, only microorganisms can destroy the toxins and clean the tanks. Great care should be taken if some leakage occurs in the petroleum tanks or pipes because it may damage the human health.
How does bioremediation work:-
For the process of bioremediation, it is necessary that microorganisms should be healthy and active so that they can perform their duty efficiently. It is not necessary that all the microorganisms detoxify the same contaminants and toxins but for different toxins there are different microorganisms because there are different habitats for different organisms.
Bioremediation can take place in two conditions that are aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In anaerobic condition, microbes need oxygen to perform their duty. If they will get oxygen in sufficient amount they will be able to easily convert the contaminants and toxins into water and carbon. In anaerobic conditions, microbes do the activity in the absence of oxygen. Chemical compounds which are present in the soil can be decomposed by bacteria under anaerobic conditions. As a result energy produces which is used by the microbes.
Types of Bioremediation:-
There are three types of bioremediation and all are used to remove toxic substances and contaminants from the environment whether they are rivers or crude oils.
Biostimulation:-
Biostimulation is the method in which bacteria are motivated to start the process of bioremediation. In this method, first he experts release nutrients and other important substances in the soil where there is need or removing the contaminants. These are in the form of gas or liquid. It increases the growth of microbes in that area. As a result bacteria and other microorganisms remove the contaminants quickly and efficiently.
Bioaugmentation:-
In some processes of bioremediation, there are some special sites where microorganisms are needed to remove the contaminants for example municipal wastewater. Bioaugmentation is used for that purpose. But unfortunately this process is not very successful as it is difficult to control the growth of microorganisms to remove the particular contaminant.
Intrinsic Bioremediation:-
The process of intrinsic bioremediation takes place in soil and water because these two places are always full of contaminants and toxins. This process is also called as natural attenuation. It also means use of the microorganisms to remove the harmful substances from soil and water. Especially those sites are treated with this method, which are underground, for example underground petroleum tanks. It is difficult to know if there is a leakage in the petroleum pipes. Contaminants and toxins find their way to enter in these sites and create harmful effects on the petrol. Therefore, only microorganisms can destroy the toxins and clean the tanks. Great care should be taken if some leakage occurs in the petroleum tanks or pipes because it may damage the human health.
by NatashaKundi at 09-19-2010, 04:14 PM
9 comments
Therapeutic cloning is the procedure of genetics in which cells from the skin of the patient and are inserted into the fertilized egg, the nucleus of which has already been removed. The resulting cell is allowed to divide repeatedly so that a blastocyst is formed. Stem cells are then extracted from this blastocyst and can be used for various purposes like growing tissues that match the patient’s own genetic makeup. Many diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, and Parkinson’s disease can be treated with therapeutic cloning.
Method of Therapeutic Cloning:-
Method of therapeutic cloning is used to treat the patient’s tissues and organs which have got damaged due to some disease or any other disorder. In this method patient’s own skin cells are used so that the immune system can easily accept the newly developed tissues or organs. There is a particular method through which therapeutic cloning is done.
1) First the DNA of the woman’s ovum is removed which is the basic of human life.
2) Take the DNA of the desired cell like skin cell and insert it into the ovum of the woman.
3) To insert the foreign DNA into the ovum, an electric shock is given so that embryo starts to develop. Due to the shock, a pre-embryo will produce.
4) The cells of the pre-embryo keep developing until they start producing stem cells.
5) When the stem cells are produced, they are taken out of the embryo which results in the death of the embryo.
6) Stem cells are allowed to grow in a specific culture where they will produce desired tissues and organs. Stem cells have the ability to develop into various forms of tissues and organs.
7) The developed tissues or organs can be transferred into the patient who suffers from the diseases like diabetes or Alzheimer’s.
Benefits of Therapeutic Cloning:-
Therapeutic cloning is helpful in creating the replacement organs. Patients who are suffering from kidney disorders or other disorders like this. It is beneficial in giving people more years to enjoy their life. When the patients own body cells are used in therapeutic cloning, then the fear of organ or tissue rejection by immune system vanishes and doctors can easily replace the organs. In some countries where this technique has not yet been applied, patients wait for the required organ for many days and in this period their life also come in danger, if therapeutic cloning is applied, the watt for the right organ will come to a stop and patients will easily get the required organ.
As there is a custom that a person donates his own organ for the needy patient, but now patient will be able to get a brand new organ just because of therapeutic cloning? It may be helpful in curing the disease which is difficult to cure by other means.
Disadvantages of therapeutic cloning:-
Though therapeutic cloning is a promising technique for the organ transplantation but it is not applicable in adult stem cells. As the embryo develops into a complete human being so when the stem cells are taken from the embryo and it dies as a result, people consider it a murder. Therapeutic cloning may develop tumors or other diseases in the body. The most important concern of therapeutic cloning is where to get the egg from. In my view no woman will be willing to donate her egg.
Method of Therapeutic Cloning:-
Method of therapeutic cloning is used to treat the patient’s tissues and organs which have got damaged due to some disease or any other disorder. In this method patient’s own skin cells are used so that the immune system can easily accept the newly developed tissues or organs. There is a particular method through which therapeutic cloning is done.
1) First the DNA of the woman’s ovum is removed which is the basic of human life.
2) Take the DNA of the desired cell like skin cell and insert it into the ovum of the woman.
3) To insert the foreign DNA into the ovum, an electric shock is given so that embryo starts to develop. Due to the shock, a pre-embryo will produce.
4) The cells of the pre-embryo keep developing until they start producing stem cells.
5) When the stem cells are produced, they are taken out of the embryo which results in the death of the embryo.
6) Stem cells are allowed to grow in a specific culture where they will produce desired tissues and organs. Stem cells have the ability to develop into various forms of tissues and organs.
7) The developed tissues or organs can be transferred into the patient who suffers from the diseases like diabetes or Alzheimer’s.
Benefits of Therapeutic Cloning:-
Therapeutic cloning is helpful in creating the replacement organs. Patients who are suffering from kidney disorders or other disorders like this. It is beneficial in giving people more years to enjoy their life. When the patients own body cells are used in therapeutic cloning, then the fear of organ or tissue rejection by immune system vanishes and doctors can easily replace the organs. In some countries where this technique has not yet been applied, patients wait for the required organ for many days and in this period their life also come in danger, if therapeutic cloning is applied, the watt for the right organ will come to a stop and patients will easily get the required organ.
As there is a custom that a person donates his own organ for the needy patient, but now patient will be able to get a brand new organ just because of therapeutic cloning? It may be helpful in curing the disease which is difficult to cure by other means.
Disadvantages of therapeutic cloning:-
Though therapeutic cloning is a promising technique for the organ transplantation but it is not applicable in adult stem cells. As the embryo develops into a complete human being so when the stem cells are taken from the embryo and it dies as a result, people consider it a murder. Therapeutic cloning may develop tumors or other diseases in the body. The most important concern of therapeutic cloning is where to get the egg from. In my view no woman will be willing to donate her egg.
by NatashaKundi at 09-19-2010, 04:10 PM
4 comments
Polymerase chin reaction is a technique of amplifying a single copy of DNA. Thousands and millions of copies of DNA can be produced through this technique having particular sequences. Many primers, enzymes and other conditions are involved in this process. It is often used in DNA fingerprinting, DNA profiling and other tests which are necessary. Its applications range from research to the commercial sector.
Steps Involved in PCR:-
To initiate the polymerase chain reaction it is necessary to have some things like DNA polymerases, Restriction enzymes, a DNA template, primers or short DNA sequences to start the DNA polymerase. Without which the task of making multiple copies cannot be accomplished.
Denaturation:-
The reaction mixture is heated at the temperature of 94 to 98 degree Celsius for 20 to 30 minutes. It makes the double stranded DNA to melt by breaking the hydrogen bonds that keep the two templates together. Now DNA molecule becomes single stranded.
Annealing:-
After the separation of the DNA strands, temperature of the reaction mixture is lowered and is kept at 50 to 65 degree Celsius for 20 to 40 seconds. It causes the annealing of the primers to the single stranded DNA molecules.
Extension:-
In this step, the DNA polymerase makes a complementary strand against each single stranded DNA. Usually Taq polymerase is used for this purpose.
Elongation:-
Usually a temperature of 70 to 74 degree Celsius is required for this step to make sure that all the single stranded DNA templates have found their complementary strands.
Uses of PCR:-
The use of polymerase chain reaction is important in many scientific fields like genetics, genetic engineering and molecular biology. In the disciplines like microbiology and molecular biology, it is used for DNA cloning procedures, DNA sequencing, and recombinant DNA technology in the research laboratories. In clinical microbiology, many microbial infections are diagnosed by PCR. Similarly, epidemiological studies also make use of this technique. Field of forensics is another important field which uses PCR for the identification of criminals and to identify the paternity of the child in the court of justice by obtaining only small amount of blood.
Importance of PCR in Biotechnology:-
Polymerase chain reaction is of vital importance in biotechnology. It can be used for the diagnosis of diseases like AIDS, middle ear infection, Lyme disease and tuberculosis. PCR identifies and cultures those microorganisms which are responsible for causing these diseases. This technique also helped a lot during human genome project in the isolation, amplification and sequencing of human genes. Recombinant DNA technology also makes use of the PCR for making multiple copies of transgenes for different applications for example for diagnosing the diseases and for making certain changes in the genome of an organism.
Disadvantages of PCR:-
Like any other reactions, reaction occurring in the PCR also faces some problems. Usually the polymerases used in PCR do not contain the 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity. Due to this reason, they are not able to correct any errors while incorporating the nucleotides.
Steps Involved in PCR:-
To initiate the polymerase chain reaction it is necessary to have some things like DNA polymerases, Restriction enzymes, a DNA template, primers or short DNA sequences to start the DNA polymerase. Without which the task of making multiple copies cannot be accomplished.
Denaturation:-
The reaction mixture is heated at the temperature of 94 to 98 degree Celsius for 20 to 30 minutes. It makes the double stranded DNA to melt by breaking the hydrogen bonds that keep the two templates together. Now DNA molecule becomes single stranded.
Annealing:-
After the separation of the DNA strands, temperature of the reaction mixture is lowered and is kept at 50 to 65 degree Celsius for 20 to 40 seconds. It causes the annealing of the primers to the single stranded DNA molecules.
Extension:-
In this step, the DNA polymerase makes a complementary strand against each single stranded DNA. Usually Taq polymerase is used for this purpose.
Elongation:-
Usually a temperature of 70 to 74 degree Celsius is required for this step to make sure that all the single stranded DNA templates have found their complementary strands.
Uses of PCR:-
The use of polymerase chain reaction is important in many scientific fields like genetics, genetic engineering and molecular biology. In the disciplines like microbiology and molecular biology, it is used for DNA cloning procedures, DNA sequencing, and recombinant DNA technology in the research laboratories. In clinical microbiology, many microbial infections are diagnosed by PCR. Similarly, epidemiological studies also make use of this technique. Field of forensics is another important field which uses PCR for the identification of criminals and to identify the paternity of the child in the court of justice by obtaining only small amount of blood.
Importance of PCR in Biotechnology:-
Polymerase chain reaction is of vital importance in biotechnology. It can be used for the diagnosis of diseases like AIDS, middle ear infection, Lyme disease and tuberculosis. PCR identifies and cultures those microorganisms which are responsible for causing these diseases. This technique also helped a lot during human genome project in the isolation, amplification and sequencing of human genes. Recombinant DNA technology also makes use of the PCR for making multiple copies of transgenes for different applications for example for diagnosing the diseases and for making certain changes in the genome of an organism.
Disadvantages of PCR:-
Like any other reactions, reaction occurring in the PCR also faces some problems. Usually the polymerases used in PCR do not contain the 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity. Due to this reason, they are not able to correct any errors while incorporating the nucleotides.
by NatashaKundi at 09-19-2010, 04:05 PM
3 comments
Bioinformatics is the branch of science which uses the applications of information technology and computer science into the field of molecular biology. It was Paulien Hogeweg who invented the term Bioinformatics in 1979 to study the processes of information technology into biological systems. The science of bioinformatics actually develops algorithms and biological software of computer to analyze and record the data related to biology for example the data of genes, proteins, drug ingredients and metabolic pathways. As biological data is always in raw form and there is a need of certain storage house in which the data can be stored, organized and manipulated. Biological software and databases provide the scientists this opportunity so that the data can be extracted from these database easily and can be used by the scientists.
Applications:-
Bioinformatics joins mathematics, statistics, and computer science and information technology to solve complex biological problems. These problems are usually t the molecular level which cannot be solved by other means. This interesting field of science has many applications and research areas where it can be applied.
Sequence Analysis:-
The application of sequence analysis determines those genes which encode regulatory sequences or peptides by using the information of sequencing. For sequence analysis, there are many powerful tools and computers which perform the duty of analyzing the genome of various organisms. These computers and tools also see the DNA mutations in an organism and also detect and identify those sequences which are related. Shotgun sequence techniques are also used for sequence analysis of numerous fragments of DNA. Special software is used to see the overlapping of fragments and their assembly.
Prediction of Protein Structure:-
It is easy to determine the primary structure of proteins in the form of amino acids which are present on the DNA molecule but it is difficult to determine the secondary, tertiary or quaternary structures of proteins. For this purpose either the method of crystallography is used or tools of bioinformatics can also be used to determine the complex protein structures.
Genome Annotation:-
In genome annotation, genomes are marked to know the regulatory sequences and protein coding. It is a very important part of the human genome project as it determines the regulatory sequences.
Comparative Genomics:-
Comparative genomics is the branch of bioinformatics which determines the genomic structure and function relation between different biological species. For this purpose, intergenomic maps are constructed which enable the scientists to trace the processes of evolution that occur in genomes of different species. These maps contain the information about the point mutations as well as the information about the duplication of large chromosomal segments.
Health and Drug discovery:-
The tools of bioinformatics are also helpful in drug discovery, diagnosis and disease management. Complete sequencing of human genes has enabled the scientists to make medicines and drugs which can target more than 500 genes. Different computational tools and drug targets has made the drug delivery easy and specific because now only those cells can be targeted which are diseased or mutated. It is also easy to know the molecular basis of a disease.
Applications:-
Bioinformatics joins mathematics, statistics, and computer science and information technology to solve complex biological problems. These problems are usually t the molecular level which cannot be solved by other means. This interesting field of science has many applications and research areas where it can be applied.
Sequence Analysis:-
The application of sequence analysis determines those genes which encode regulatory sequences or peptides by using the information of sequencing. For sequence analysis, there are many powerful tools and computers which perform the duty of analyzing the genome of various organisms. These computers and tools also see the DNA mutations in an organism and also detect and identify those sequences which are related. Shotgun sequence techniques are also used for sequence analysis of numerous fragments of DNA. Special software is used to see the overlapping of fragments and their assembly.
Prediction of Protein Structure:-
It is easy to determine the primary structure of proteins in the form of amino acids which are present on the DNA molecule but it is difficult to determine the secondary, tertiary or quaternary structures of proteins. For this purpose either the method of crystallography is used or tools of bioinformatics can also be used to determine the complex protein structures.
Genome Annotation:-
In genome annotation, genomes are marked to know the regulatory sequences and protein coding. It is a very important part of the human genome project as it determines the regulatory sequences.
Comparative Genomics:-
Comparative genomics is the branch of bioinformatics which determines the genomic structure and function relation between different biological species. For this purpose, intergenomic maps are constructed which enable the scientists to trace the processes of evolution that occur in genomes of different species. These maps contain the information about the point mutations as well as the information about the duplication of large chromosomal segments.
Health and Drug discovery:-
The tools of bioinformatics are also helpful in drug discovery, diagnosis and disease management. Complete sequencing of human genes has enabled the scientists to make medicines and drugs which can target more than 500 genes. Different computational tools and drug targets has made the drug delivery easy and specific because now only those cells can be targeted which are diseased or mutated. It is also easy to know the molecular basis of a disease.
by NatashaKundi at 09-19-2010, 04:01 PM
2 comments
Antibodies are actually the proteins which are produced by B-lymphocytes present in the immune system. They are produced in response to the foreign object which enters the body called as antigens. Their actual function is to bind with the antigen and make it prominent to the immune system so that it can be destroyed. Antibodies act as markers and the site where they bind to the antigen is called as epitope. Epitope is a small amino acid sequence which can easily be recognized by the antibody. Antibody has the ability to bind to a particular epitope and it is not necessary that whole antigen is present during the attachment of antibody to the epitope.
How are monoclonal antibodies produced:-
As monoclonal antibodies are produced in the laboratory that is why there is a certain procedure for their production. General procedure of production is as follows;
1) Myeloma cells, which are produced due to the malfunctioning of body cells and become cancerous cells, are fused with the spleen cells taken from mouse produced in the laboratory. Methods like electroporation are used to fuse these two cells.
2) The substance produced as a result of fusion of two cells is celled as Hybridoma.
3) In the second step, a medium is prepared for Hybridoma. In this medium, there are two types of cells that are hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase which are the myeloma cells and B cells are hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase plus. When in the culture, myeloma cells will combine with other myeloma cells or B cells will combine with other B cells, they will not be able to survive. When myeloma cells will combine with B cells, only those cells will survive in the medium.
4) Now the combination of two cells that is myeloma and B cells is cloned and then diluted. The resulting substance will be the antibodies. Scientists will check, if they have the ability to bind to the specific antigen or not.
5) Different tests are performed to see the binding of antibody to the antigen for example ELISA or Antigen microarray Assay. Best clone is saved for future purposes.
6) When the monoclonal antibody is produced, there are some impurities also in the medium which are in the form of hormones, enzymes and growth factors. Filtration method is used to remove some of the lipids, cell debris and other useless materials from the medium. Antibodies are taken out of the culture by precipitating the medium with sodium sulphate or ammonium sulphate. Antibodies are able to precipitate out even at low concentrations of salts. Purity of monoclonal antibodies is checked with ELISA kits.
Characteristics of monoclonal antibodies:-
Monoclonal antibodies have the ability to bind to a particular antigen and attack it. Once an antibody is activated against some diseases especially the diseases of childhood like chicken pox and measles, then it keeps on creating resistance against that particular disease until the disease is fully removed from the body. Antibodies have enabled the scientists to develop vaccines which also act against a particular disease or antigen.
How are monoclonal antibodies produced:-
As monoclonal antibodies are produced in the laboratory that is why there is a certain procedure for their production. General procedure of production is as follows;
1) Myeloma cells, which are produced due to the malfunctioning of body cells and become cancerous cells, are fused with the spleen cells taken from mouse produced in the laboratory. Methods like electroporation are used to fuse these two cells.
2) The substance produced as a result of fusion of two cells is celled as Hybridoma.
3) In the second step, a medium is prepared for Hybridoma. In this medium, there are two types of cells that are hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase which are the myeloma cells and B cells are hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase plus. When in the culture, myeloma cells will combine with other myeloma cells or B cells will combine with other B cells, they will not be able to survive. When myeloma cells will combine with B cells, only those cells will survive in the medium.
4) Now the combination of two cells that is myeloma and B cells is cloned and then diluted. The resulting substance will be the antibodies. Scientists will check, if they have the ability to bind to the specific antigen or not.
5) Different tests are performed to see the binding of antibody to the antigen for example ELISA or Antigen microarray Assay. Best clone is saved for future purposes.
6) When the monoclonal antibody is produced, there are some impurities also in the medium which are in the form of hormones, enzymes and growth factors. Filtration method is used to remove some of the lipids, cell debris and other useless materials from the medium. Antibodies are taken out of the culture by precipitating the medium with sodium sulphate or ammonium sulphate. Antibodies are able to precipitate out even at low concentrations of salts. Purity of monoclonal antibodies is checked with ELISA kits.
Characteristics of monoclonal antibodies:-
Monoclonal antibodies have the ability to bind to a particular antigen and attack it. Once an antibody is activated against some diseases especially the diseases of childhood like chicken pox and measles, then it keeps on creating resistance against that particular disease until the disease is fully removed from the body. Antibodies have enabled the scientists to develop vaccines which also act against a particular disease or antigen.
by NatashaKundi at 09-19-2010, 03:59 PM
1 comments
Biofertlizers are actually the living microorganisms which increase the fertility of the soil by providing nutrients required by the plants. These nutrients are in the form of animal wastes and other organic materials produced by the microorganisms. Due to these naturally occurring biofertlizers and nutrients, plants have less chances of suffering from any diseases. Microorganisms create a healthy environment for the plant in which it can grow without suffering from any harmful diseases and also do not cause any kind of pollution in the environment.
Important Biofertilizers:-
As it is known that biofertlizers are naturally occurring microorganisms, so here are some of the important biofertilizers which are beneficent in the cultivation of plants and help them to grow in a healthy environment.
Azotobacter Biofertlizers:-
Azotobacter is a bacterium that lives freely in the environment and has the ability to fix the atmospheric nitrogen into soil. It is used in the cultivation of many important crops because it is the important source of providing nitrogen to the plants. It enables the plant to germinate and grow without being effected from any harmful microbes.
Phosphate Solubilizers:-
Phosphate Solubilizers have the ability to dissolve the fixed phosphate and convert it in the form which can be utilized by the plants. They produce enzymes, hormones and organic acids. These components make possible the solubilization of insoluble phosphate so that it can easily be used by the plants.
Mycorrhiza:-
Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic relationship between the roots of the plant and fungi. Fungi make colonies either intracellularly or extracellularly in the roots of the plants and provide nutrients to the plants which are helpful n its growth. Fungi are very important for the soil life.
Types of Biofertilizers:-
There are three types of biofertlizers which help the plant to grow at different levels of its growth.
Nitrogen Biofertilizers:-
This type of biofertilizer helps the soil to correct its nitrogen level. Nitrogen is an essential component for plant growth but plants need it in a limited amount. Different soils have different requirement for nitrogen that is why it depends on the cultivated crops that which type of nitrogen biofertilizer should be used. Azotobacter is a biofertilizer which provides the required amount of nitrogen to the plant from the soil.
Phosphorus Biofertlizers:-
Phosphorus is also a limiting factor and plants need it in particular amount. Phosphorus biofertlizers help the soil to correct the phosphorus level. As nitrogen biofertilizers depend on the cultivating crops, phosphorus biofertlizers do not depend on the cultivating crops. Rhizobium is the phosphorus biofertilizer.
Compost Biofertlizers:-
Compost biofertilizers are animals’ wastes which are degraded by the bacteria and used as the best naturally occurring biofertlizers. They not only protect the plants from diseases nut also help them to grow in a healthy environment.
Benefits:-
Biofertilizers are made from the resources of fossil fuels which are nonrenewable. They have the ability to create imbalance of nutrients in he soil and are used by the soil in excessive amounts. They do not affect the quality of the soil or the health of the plant and provide them a friendly environment to grow. They also increase the crop yield which is not possible by other means. They have low cost and can be found easily.
Important Biofertilizers:-
As it is known that biofertlizers are naturally occurring microorganisms, so here are some of the important biofertilizers which are beneficent in the cultivation of plants and help them to grow in a healthy environment.
Azotobacter Biofertlizers:-
Azotobacter is a bacterium that lives freely in the environment and has the ability to fix the atmospheric nitrogen into soil. It is used in the cultivation of many important crops because it is the important source of providing nitrogen to the plants. It enables the plant to germinate and grow without being effected from any harmful microbes.
Phosphate Solubilizers:-
Phosphate Solubilizers have the ability to dissolve the fixed phosphate and convert it in the form which can be utilized by the plants. They produce enzymes, hormones and organic acids. These components make possible the solubilization of insoluble phosphate so that it can easily be used by the plants.
Mycorrhiza:-
Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic relationship between the roots of the plant and fungi. Fungi make colonies either intracellularly or extracellularly in the roots of the plants and provide nutrients to the plants which are helpful n its growth. Fungi are very important for the soil life.
Types of Biofertilizers:-
There are three types of biofertlizers which help the plant to grow at different levels of its growth.
Nitrogen Biofertilizers:-
This type of biofertilizer helps the soil to correct its nitrogen level. Nitrogen is an essential component for plant growth but plants need it in a limited amount. Different soils have different requirement for nitrogen that is why it depends on the cultivated crops that which type of nitrogen biofertilizer should be used. Azotobacter is a biofertilizer which provides the required amount of nitrogen to the plant from the soil.
Phosphorus Biofertlizers:-
Phosphorus is also a limiting factor and plants need it in particular amount. Phosphorus biofertlizers help the soil to correct the phosphorus level. As nitrogen biofertilizers depend on the cultivating crops, phosphorus biofertlizers do not depend on the cultivating crops. Rhizobium is the phosphorus biofertilizer.
Compost Biofertlizers:-
Compost biofertilizers are animals’ wastes which are degraded by the bacteria and used as the best naturally occurring biofertlizers. They not only protect the plants from diseases nut also help them to grow in a healthy environment.
Benefits:-
Biofertilizers are made from the resources of fossil fuels which are nonrenewable. They have the ability to create imbalance of nutrients in he soil and are used by the soil in excessive amounts. They do not affect the quality of the soil or the health of the plant and provide them a friendly environment to grow. They also increase the crop yield which is not possible by other means. They have low cost and can be found easily.
by NatashaKundi at 09-19-2010, 03:55 PM
2 comments
Human Cloning:
Human cloning has been an issue of debate since many years now. It is considered both unethical and controversial in all societies at the moment. There are a few people who support human cloning and, therefore, it is believed that even though people are uneasy and against human cloning, it will still occur somewhere in the future if not the near future though it does seem very awesome in the movies.
Though human cloning may seem to be a serious issue under the umbrella of genetic engineering, but it has many used in areas such as medicine, industry, and agriculture. Many more foods are being considered to be genetically modified which may or may not be beneficial for the human health as not all traits of an organism would pass on to the next generation. For example fish genes can be combined with a type of produce and the produce would not take on any physical or otherwise characters of the fish, except for maybe growth or such. It is believed that genetic engineering may be good for the quantity of food but certainly not the quality as it may have negative effects on health.
Genetic engineering has a major role in medicine. It can be used to see how certain drugs would affect certain people. More and more drugs will be produced through genetic engineering. It may be possible that a disease would be cured before it even strikes. This would be done by making changes in the environment that cure and prevent complex diseases. For example, polio vaccines have been introduced specifically in third world countries for children less than 5 years of age so that it can be eliminated on grass root level.
Therapeutic cloning is another factor that will be used for the cure of many diseases like diabetes; Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease have high chances of treatment with this type of cloning in the near future. It may also be possible to produce tissues and organs by using patient’s own skin cells.
It is also believed that athletes may be able to enhance their strength. Ageing may be cured by the end of 21st century. Genetic engineering also has made it possible to produce insulin and growth hormones. People suffering from diabetes lack required amount of insulin in their body. Soon diabetic patients will get insulin injections at a very low cost.
Scientists are now able to incorporate spider genes in goat’s milk to produce silk along with the milk. This flexible material is of great importance in making of military uniforms and medical microsutures and tennis rackets. It is a great achievement of scientists in the 21st century.
Genetic engineering is important in agriculture also. In the past, farmers used to use the method of traditional breeding which was very time consuming but it will be now possible to produce animals as well as plants with the traits required by the farmers and within less time they will be able to reproduce. Many crops have developed insect resistance and diseases resistance and scientists are still working on the some plants which will be able to grow at such places where it was not possible to grow before. There will be drought resistant plants in the near future. It will be helpful for fulfilling the need of food in third world countries.
Human cloning has been an issue of debate since many years now. It is considered both unethical and controversial in all societies at the moment. There are a few people who support human cloning and, therefore, it is believed that even though people are uneasy and against human cloning, it will still occur somewhere in the future if not the near future though it does seem very awesome in the movies.
Though human cloning may seem to be a serious issue under the umbrella of genetic engineering, but it has many used in areas such as medicine, industry, and agriculture. Many more foods are being considered to be genetically modified which may or may not be beneficial for the human health as not all traits of an organism would pass on to the next generation. For example fish genes can be combined with a type of produce and the produce would not take on any physical or otherwise characters of the fish, except for maybe growth or such. It is believed that genetic engineering may be good for the quantity of food but certainly not the quality as it may have negative effects on health.
Genetic engineering has a major role in medicine. It can be used to see how certain drugs would affect certain people. More and more drugs will be produced through genetic engineering. It may be possible that a disease would be cured before it even strikes. This would be done by making changes in the environment that cure and prevent complex diseases. For example, polio vaccines have been introduced specifically in third world countries for children less than 5 years of age so that it can be eliminated on grass root level.
Therapeutic cloning is another factor that will be used for the cure of many diseases like diabetes; Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease have high chances of treatment with this type of cloning in the near future. It may also be possible to produce tissues and organs by using patient’s own skin cells.
It is also believed that athletes may be able to enhance their strength. Ageing may be cured by the end of 21st century. Genetic engineering also has made it possible to produce insulin and growth hormones. People suffering from diabetes lack required amount of insulin in their body. Soon diabetic patients will get insulin injections at a very low cost.
Scientists are now able to incorporate spider genes in goat’s milk to produce silk along with the milk. This flexible material is of great importance in making of military uniforms and medical microsutures and tennis rackets. It is a great achievement of scientists in the 21st century.
Genetic engineering is important in agriculture also. In the past, farmers used to use the method of traditional breeding which was very time consuming but it will be now possible to produce animals as well as plants with the traits required by the farmers and within less time they will be able to reproduce. Many crops have developed insect resistance and diseases resistance and scientists are still working on the some plants which will be able to grow at such places where it was not possible to grow before. There will be drought resistant plants in the near future. It will be helpful for fulfilling the need of food in third world countries.
by mohan_vamsi2020@yahoo.co.in at 08-21-2010, 02:31 AM
1 comments
Hi there,
I am Mohan studying MSc Drug Design and Biomedical Sciences. In one of our modules we have a course work on designing an experiment, as per the course work details provided we are given a gene of interest which is one of the penta functional gene of an organism and we are asked to work on our method of approach for the course work. I have a clear idea about the PCR technique but before that the procedure is very confusing, about how to isolate a gene of the desired protein from the protein cluster then how to design the primers (I have used some online tools), how to identify the restriction enzymes. we have been given a specific vector which IS pGEX-4T-1, but what is the other alternative if the restriction sites are not available on the gene? A lot of doubts, but when I approach professors each one is giving there own reviews and approaches which are confused among themselfs. Please help me in this.. all the above approaches should be made with the online bioinformatics tools.. thank you.
I am Mohan studying MSc Drug Design and Biomedical Sciences. In one of our modules we have a course work on designing an experiment, as per the course work details provided we are given a gene of interest which is one of the penta functional gene of an organism and we are asked to work on our method of approach for the course work. I have a clear idea about the PCR technique but before that the procedure is very confusing, about how to isolate a gene of the desired protein from the protein cluster then how to design the primers (I have used some online tools), how to identify the restriction enzymes. we have been given a specific vector which IS pGEX-4T-1, but what is the other alternative if the restriction sites are not available on the gene? A lot of doubts, but when I approach professors each one is giving there own reviews and approaches which are confused among themselfs. Please help me in this.. all the above approaches should be made with the online bioinformatics tools.. thank you.
by Yas at 08-01-2010, 01:01 PM
0 comments
Hello,
I'm training myself to be a patent translator and recently encountered the phrasal term, "in trans to." Does anybody tell me what this term means?
Here are example usages:
"these exosomes transmit redox signaling in trans to neighboring cells"
"PH domain of ELMO functions in trans to regulate Rac activation via Dock180"
" these complexes on activated monocytes present IL-15 in trans to target cells such as CD8+ T cells"
"regulatory elements might have the capacity to act in trans to regulate genes on other chromosomes"
Thanks!
Yas
I'm training myself to be a patent translator and recently encountered the phrasal term, "in trans to." Does anybody tell me what this term means?
Here are example usages:
"these exosomes transmit redox signaling in trans to neighboring cells"
"PH domain of ELMO functions in trans to regulate Rac activation via Dock180"
" these complexes on activated monocytes present IL-15 in trans to target cells such as CD8+ T cells"
"regulatory elements might have the capacity to act in trans to regulate genes on other chromosomes"
Thanks!
Yas
by joshuajoby at 07-30-2010, 05:30 AM
2 comments
Diatoms are one of the primitive forms of eukaryotic existence. They are unicellular, photosynthetic algae which exists in sea water, fresh water and in normal soil. They belong to class Bacillariophyceae. Due to their abundance and critical role in the food web, they can be referred as ‘production factories’ of the marine world. Examples for diatoms are Cyclotella, Skeletonema, Thalassiosira etc. They form biofilmic layer on water surfaces, these biofilms are rich in carbohydrates. They also play a key role in fixing the Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Cell walls of diatoms are made up of two silicate cylindrical outer and inner valves, called epivalve and hypotheca respectively. Frustules are composed of silica as well as organic compounds like silaffins (protein with silica affinity) and polyamines. After the death of diatoms, decomposition of the internal organelles occurs leaving the glass skeletons (frustules) behind. These remaining of diatoms are called diatomites. Based on the molecular weight of frustules, they are further divided into α-frustulin, β-frustulin, γ-frustulin, δ-frustulin and ε-frustulin.
Frustules can be used for various industrial purposes as Filter materials, Mineral fillers, Biosensors, Biomineralization process, Production of Insulation materials and Abrasives. Several research works are ongoing on the chemical nature of frustules due to its morphological characteristics like porosity, inertness and silicate finishing. Nanotechnology is another area where the silicate frustules inspire due to its nanostructure, self assembling property and uniqueness. Thalassiosira pseudonana was the first diatom to be sequenced. Scientists have predicted T. pseudonana to be the next break through in computer chips. Researches have proven that diatoms, Nitzschia obtusa and Navicula minima acts as bioaccumulator, which accumulated trace amounts of gold.
Biomass production of diatoms benefits health industry in many ways: Diatoms like Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Skeletonema costatum are natural producers of Eicosapentaenoic Acid: type of poly unsaturated omega 3 fatty acid. PUFA s are in demand because of its role in healthcare as it reduces cardiovascular diseases and mental disorders. Arachidonic acid: type of poly unsaturated omega 6 fatty acid, they acts as precursors for Prostaglandins. Acetyl Co A- Carboxylase: An enzyme which is required for the synthesis of Triglycerides, which can be converted into glycerol and monoesters and thus biodiesel production. Fatty acid metabolism in peroxisomes and mitochondria. Integration of urea cycle into Nitrogen metabolism. Amino acids like Aspartic acid, Isoleucine play major role in cosmetic industry. It was thought earlier that they had therapeutical values like Vitamins present. Anyhow, no studies were made to support this hypothesis. It also acts as a forensic investigation tool. The morphology of frustules sheds light on different delivering mechanisms in Genetic engineering.
Its applications are extended to textile industry as decolouring agents. These organisms can be exploited by using the carbohydrates for ethanol production, chlorophyll carotenoid proteins for methane production and natural oils for biodiesel production. Bioremediation property – they are heavy metal resistant hence can be used for bioremediation, researches have shown that Arsenic toxicity were bioremedified using these diatoms. Extensive studies and researches have to be conducted to explore the unseen potentials of diatoms.
Cell walls of diatoms are made up of two silicate cylindrical outer and inner valves, called epivalve and hypotheca respectively. Frustules are composed of silica as well as organic compounds like silaffins (protein with silica affinity) and polyamines. After the death of diatoms, decomposition of the internal organelles occurs leaving the glass skeletons (frustules) behind. These remaining of diatoms are called diatomites. Based on the molecular weight of frustules, they are further divided into α-frustulin, β-frustulin, γ-frustulin, δ-frustulin and ε-frustulin.
Frustules can be used for various industrial purposes as Filter materials, Mineral fillers, Biosensors, Biomineralization process, Production of Insulation materials and Abrasives. Several research works are ongoing on the chemical nature of frustules due to its morphological characteristics like porosity, inertness and silicate finishing. Nanotechnology is another area where the silicate frustules inspire due to its nanostructure, self assembling property and uniqueness. Thalassiosira pseudonana was the first diatom to be sequenced. Scientists have predicted T. pseudonana to be the next break through in computer chips. Researches have proven that diatoms, Nitzschia obtusa and Navicula minima acts as bioaccumulator, which accumulated trace amounts of gold.
Biomass production of diatoms benefits health industry in many ways: Diatoms like Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Skeletonema costatum are natural producers of Eicosapentaenoic Acid: type of poly unsaturated omega 3 fatty acid. PUFA s are in demand because of its role in healthcare as it reduces cardiovascular diseases and mental disorders. Arachidonic acid: type of poly unsaturated omega 6 fatty acid, they acts as precursors for Prostaglandins. Acetyl Co A- Carboxylase: An enzyme which is required for the synthesis of Triglycerides, which can be converted into glycerol and monoesters and thus biodiesel production. Fatty acid metabolism in peroxisomes and mitochondria. Integration of urea cycle into Nitrogen metabolism. Amino acids like Aspartic acid, Isoleucine play major role in cosmetic industry. It was thought earlier that they had therapeutical values like Vitamins present. Anyhow, no studies were made to support this hypothesis. It also acts as a forensic investigation tool. The morphology of frustules sheds light on different delivering mechanisms in Genetic engineering.
Its applications are extended to textile industry as decolouring agents. These organisms can be exploited by using the carbohydrates for ethanol production, chlorophyll carotenoid proteins for methane production and natural oils for biodiesel production. Bioremediation property – they are heavy metal resistant hence can be used for bioremediation, researches have shown that Arsenic toxicity were bioremedified using these diatoms. Extensive studies and researches have to be conducted to explore the unseen potentials of diatoms.
by NatashaKundi at 07-30-2010, 02:21 AM
19 comments
What are antibiotics?
Antibiotics are the chemical substances which have the ability to kill disease causing microorganisms. They are mostly used against bacterial infections. It is an interesting fact that antibiotics are derived from the bacteria and mold. These microbes release such chemicals which can be used as weapons against other harmful microbes. There are also some antibiotics which are synthesized in the laboratory.
There are different varieties of antibiotics depending on the infection a patient is suffering from. During the disease of cancer, the white blood cells become weak and body becomes susceptible to various bacterial infections. Doctors prescribe antibiotics to block these infections. Antibiotics only work against bacterial infections; they do not work against viral infections because viruses are not the living microorganisms.
How do antibiotics work?
Antibiotics work in two different ways either by killing the bacteria or blocking its function. They only attack the bacterial population present in the body and causing the disease, they do not affect the cell of the body. It is an unfortunate fact that though antibiotics are being used constantly but now bacteria have developed resistance against these drugs. It is a very natural process that new antibiotics with more effectiveness are being developed and bacterial genome is revolutionizing against these newly synthesized antibiotics.
An antibiotic has also the ability to convert glucose in the body into energy. It produces a protective wall against bacteria and does not allow them to enter the cell. It also protects the body from further infection and prevents the bacteria to multiply in number.
Side effects of Antibiotics
Though antibiotics are useful in curing the human body against bacterial infections but they also have some side effects. A patient can suffer from slight headache to extreme allergic reaction. Another side effect is diarrhea in which the balance of the intestinal flora gets affected and disrupts the function of the useful bacteria present in the intestine. In some cases, antibiotics can react with other drugs administered along with them and cause other infections.
Advantages of Antibiotics
In the past before the discovery of antibiotics, the diseases like cholera and diarrhea would be fatal as these diseases dehydrate the body and makes the individual weak. Antibiotics have the credit of saving so many lives by killing the microbes causing certain diseases. In the disease of tuberculosis, antibiotics play an important role in eradicating the bacteria. To protect the patient from having side effects, doctors prescribe such antibiotics which suit person’s body.
Disadvantages of Antibiotics
As the saying is, “Excess of everything is bad”, similarly if antibiotics are used in excess amount, they react the other way round. Patient can suffer from diarrhea and abdominal cramps. If antibiotics are used repeatedly, they also are harmful for the body because then the specific bacteria develops resistance against that particular antibiotic and it may result in the cause of cancer. Sometimes doctors do not know about the particular drug and they prescribe the drugs which have broad spectrum, it may lead to the removal of both harmful as well as beneficial bacteria from the body. The other disadvantage is that they may decrease the iron level, magnesium and calcium level from the body. If the iron is removed from the body, it results in sickle cell anemia.
Antibiotic Drugs
Below is the list of few antibiotics used against various bacterial infections:
Levofloxacin
Fosfomycin
Trovafloxacin
Grepafloxacin
Sparfloxacin
Quinupristin
Antibiotics are the chemical substances which have the ability to kill disease causing microorganisms. They are mostly used against bacterial infections. It is an interesting fact that antibiotics are derived from the bacteria and mold. These microbes release such chemicals which can be used as weapons against other harmful microbes. There are also some antibiotics which are synthesized in the laboratory.
There are different varieties of antibiotics depending on the infection a patient is suffering from. During the disease of cancer, the white blood cells become weak and body becomes susceptible to various bacterial infections. Doctors prescribe antibiotics to block these infections. Antibiotics only work against bacterial infections; they do not work against viral infections because viruses are not the living microorganisms.
How do antibiotics work?
Antibiotics work in two different ways either by killing the bacteria or blocking its function. They only attack the bacterial population present in the body and causing the disease, they do not affect the cell of the body. It is an unfortunate fact that though antibiotics are being used constantly but now bacteria have developed resistance against these drugs. It is a very natural process that new antibiotics with more effectiveness are being developed and bacterial genome is revolutionizing against these newly synthesized antibiotics.
An antibiotic has also the ability to convert glucose in the body into energy. It produces a protective wall against bacteria and does not allow them to enter the cell. It also protects the body from further infection and prevents the bacteria to multiply in number.
Side effects of Antibiotics
Though antibiotics are useful in curing the human body against bacterial infections but they also have some side effects. A patient can suffer from slight headache to extreme allergic reaction. Another side effect is diarrhea in which the balance of the intestinal flora gets affected and disrupts the function of the useful bacteria present in the intestine. In some cases, antibiotics can react with other drugs administered along with them and cause other infections.
Advantages of Antibiotics
In the past before the discovery of antibiotics, the diseases like cholera and diarrhea would be fatal as these diseases dehydrate the body and makes the individual weak. Antibiotics have the credit of saving so many lives by killing the microbes causing certain diseases. In the disease of tuberculosis, antibiotics play an important role in eradicating the bacteria. To protect the patient from having side effects, doctors prescribe such antibiotics which suit person’s body.
Disadvantages of Antibiotics
As the saying is, “Excess of everything is bad”, similarly if antibiotics are used in excess amount, they react the other way round. Patient can suffer from diarrhea and abdominal cramps. If antibiotics are used repeatedly, they also are harmful for the body because then the specific bacteria develops resistance against that particular antibiotic and it may result in the cause of cancer. Sometimes doctors do not know about the particular drug and they prescribe the drugs which have broad spectrum, it may lead to the removal of both harmful as well as beneficial bacteria from the body. The other disadvantage is that they may decrease the iron level, magnesium and calcium level from the body. If the iron is removed from the body, it results in sickle cell anemia.
Antibiotic Drugs
Below is the list of few antibiotics used against various bacterial infections:
Levofloxacin
Fosfomycin
Trovafloxacin
Grepafloxacin
Sparfloxacin
Quinupristin
by joshuajoby at 07-28-2010, 09:35 PM
3 comments
Genetically modified crops (GM Crops), the most talked about topic around the world has its own advantages and disadvantages. What are GM crops? Crops that have been modified from its natural genetic make up so as to yield better (?) characteristics. Genetic modifications are generally done in the gene expression level; either introducing desired gene to be expressed, or silencing the characters which it already possess. Though it possesses so many advantages, the degree of acceptance varies from country to country out of concern. There are number of GM crops out in production today. Genetically modifying crops have an enormous impact on improving the quality of the crops. Disease resistant plants are one of the major highlights of GM crops. The complex mechanism of host-pathogen interactions are unclear, so isolating a single gene responsible seems to be a tedious task though efforts have made.
Disease resistant plants- Resistance towards many viruses as well as fungus could be achieved. An expression vector with CaMV (Cauliflower mosaic virus) 35S promoter, cDNA of TMV(Tobacco Mosaic virus) and PolyA signals from nopaline synthase gene were introduced to Tobacco as well as Tomato cells were regenerated and resistance towards TMV were achieved.
Pesticide resistant plants- Pesticides are usually chemicals that affect the overall health of the plant itself. Growths of the plants are retarded on exposure towards them by blocking the amino acid synthesis, chemical interactions. To minimize the use of pesticides controlling the attack of insects could be achieved. An example is BT cotton, tomato etc. Resistance towards insects were achieved by the expression of insect toxin gene of Bacillus thurengensis in tomato , B. thurengensis produces Cry protein which acts as a gut toxin on consumption by the insects. pMON9711 with BT, 35S CaMV promoter, 3’ nopaline and neomycin phosphotransferase gene responsible for Kanamycin resistance property were transformed to tomato. As its toxic property is expressed only with the action of proteases. Modification was made to the technique by introducing cloned toxin gene via Ti plasmid into plants so that the plant itself could produce BT toxin. Recent researches have done on creating plants that kill insects by regulating their gene expression by gene-silencing response called RNA interference.
Herbicide resistant plants- Out growth of weeds could lead to insufficient nutrient supply, so growth of weeds are to be controlled hence herbicides are necessary for the survival of the plant. At the same time, these herbicides itself could be dangerous to plants as the biochemical properties of the herbicides could be harmful for the plant. Herbicides attack EPSP synthase (5 EnolPyruvyl Shikimate 3 - Phosphate), an essential enzyme for the production of aminoacid. Studies have shown that transformation of EPSP synthase from Arabidopsis with 35S CaMV promoter resulted in overproduction of EPSPs and to glyphosate tolerance in transformed callus.
Desired characters- Delayed ripening by gene silencing two ripening-specific N-glycoprotein modifying enzymes, α-mannosidase (α-Man) and β-D-N-acetylhexosaminidase (β-Hex) in tomatoes which assures its quality and freshness for 45 days. This characteristics put them in demand in commercial aspects. Nitrogen fixation by non-nitrogen fixing plants through transformation of nif genes. Traits like increased photosynthesis, early flowering, plants that can survive temperature variations, edible vaccines in short any traits in demand could be achieved through Genetic Engineering.
Advantages of GM:
Drawbacks
The major concern regarding GM crops are how safe they are for consumption. Though GM crops claim to be safe, experiments done on rats which were fed on GM maize (BT and Glyphosate resistant) showed statistically significant signs of liver, kidney damage, higher blood sugar levels and high triglyceride levels when compared to controls.
GM crops are with no doubt intended to be beneficiary but the real question is, should we expose ourselves to tentative techniques to gain something which we are unsure of??
Disease resistant plants- Resistance towards many viruses as well as fungus could be achieved. An expression vector with CaMV (Cauliflower mosaic virus) 35S promoter, cDNA of TMV(Tobacco Mosaic virus) and PolyA signals from nopaline synthase gene were introduced to Tobacco as well as Tomato cells were regenerated and resistance towards TMV were achieved.
Pesticide resistant plants- Pesticides are usually chemicals that affect the overall health of the plant itself. Growths of the plants are retarded on exposure towards them by blocking the amino acid synthesis, chemical interactions. To minimize the use of pesticides controlling the attack of insects could be achieved. An example is BT cotton, tomato etc. Resistance towards insects were achieved by the expression of insect toxin gene of Bacillus thurengensis in tomato , B. thurengensis produces Cry protein which acts as a gut toxin on consumption by the insects. pMON9711 with BT, 35S CaMV promoter, 3’ nopaline and neomycin phosphotransferase gene responsible for Kanamycin resistance property were transformed to tomato. As its toxic property is expressed only with the action of proteases. Modification was made to the technique by introducing cloned toxin gene via Ti plasmid into plants so that the plant itself could produce BT toxin. Recent researches have done on creating plants that kill insects by regulating their gene expression by gene-silencing response called RNA interference.
Herbicide resistant plants- Out growth of weeds could lead to insufficient nutrient supply, so growth of weeds are to be controlled hence herbicides are necessary for the survival of the plant. At the same time, these herbicides itself could be dangerous to plants as the biochemical properties of the herbicides could be harmful for the plant. Herbicides attack EPSP synthase (5 EnolPyruvyl Shikimate 3 - Phosphate), an essential enzyme for the production of aminoacid. Studies have shown that transformation of EPSP synthase from Arabidopsis with 35S CaMV promoter resulted in overproduction of EPSPs and to glyphosate tolerance in transformed callus.
Desired characters- Delayed ripening by gene silencing two ripening-specific N-glycoprotein modifying enzymes, α-mannosidase (α-Man) and β-D-N-acetylhexosaminidase (β-Hex) in tomatoes which assures its quality and freshness for 45 days. This characteristics put them in demand in commercial aspects. Nitrogen fixation by non-nitrogen fixing plants through transformation of nif genes. Traits like increased photosynthesis, early flowering, plants that can survive temperature variations, edible vaccines in short any traits in demand could be achieved through Genetic Engineering.
Advantages of GM:
- Improves nutritional quality
- Offer disease resistance
- Environment friendly- by reduced usage of pesticides
- Therapeutical values
- Longer shelf lives
- Availability- despite the seasonal barriers.
Drawbacks
- Environment pollution by genetic variants
- Developing herbicide pesticide resistant weeds and pests.
- Unintended harm to butterflies and other organisms.
- Accumulation of ‘unnatural’ elements in the environment.
- Therapeutical values like incorporating vitamins might lead to over dosage.
- Uncertain health hazards towards antibiotic resistance genes and other inserted elements.
The major concern regarding GM crops are how safe they are for consumption. Though GM crops claim to be safe, experiments done on rats which were fed on GM maize (BT and Glyphosate resistant) showed statistically significant signs of liver, kidney damage, higher blood sugar levels and high triglyceride levels when compared to controls.
GM crops are with no doubt intended to be beneficiary but the real question is, should we expose ourselves to tentative techniques to gain something which we are unsure of??
by NatashaKundi at 07-27-2010, 10:13 PM
3 comments
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is the hereditary material in humans as well as plants and animals. Every cell in the body has the same structure and function of DNA. It is found in the cell’s nucleus. Mitochondria are cell organelles which contain the small amount of DNA. There are four nucleotide bases which make the structure of DNA that are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. These bases are actually the genetic information stored in the DNA molecules in the form of codes. There are almost 3 billion bases and all the people have 99% similarity with each other in their bases.
Recombinant DNA
Following are three methods through which recombinant DNA is made.
Transformation
- First the piece of DNA is selected which is to be inserted into the vector or plasmid.
- Isolated DNA piece is cut by using restriction enzymes.
- The cut piece is inserted into the vector where it attaches to the genetic material already present in the vector with the enzyme called DNA ligase .
- A genetic marker is used for the identification of recombinant DNA. Usually an antibiotic marker is used.
- This process of inserting vector into the host cell is called as transformation.
During the process of transformation, usually E. coli acts as a host cell. When a foreign gene is inserted into this vector, it is prepared before the insertion so that it accepts the gene. To keep the foreign gene or DNA different from the host cell’s genome, markers, color changes or some other characteristics are used.
Non-bacterial Transformation
This process of synthesis of recombinant DNA is different from the transformation process in the sense that it does not use bacteria as a host for the foreign DNA but other sources are used. For example, DNA microinjection is used in which cell is inserted into the nucleus of the recipient cell directly. Bioballistic is another method in which silver particles are used with the help of gene gun to bombard the recombinant DNA into the recipient cell.
Phage
In this process, a vector is used instead of bacteria as host cell. Phage is a type of virus which acts as a host cell for carrying recombinant DNA. Scientists inactivate the function of virus itself so that when it enters the body, it only inserts the recombinant DNA and does not cause any infections.
Function of Recombinant DNA
When the recombinant DNA enters the host cell, the host cell starts expressing the proteins present in the rDNA. If the expression factors are added along with the rDNA then host cell will be able to produce significant amount of proteins. Expression of the protein will not appear until there are some signals in the host cells. There are specific signals for every species of bacteria for example; E. coli does not get the signals of human terminators and promoters.
Importance of Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA is very helpful in techniques like gene therapy. It is helpful in curing different diseases like cancer. Healthy genes are inserted in the body and they replace the defected genes. Some other important features of recombinant DNA are that it can give better yield of crops. Disease like sickle cell anemia and hemophilia can be treated with recombinant DNA because it produces clotting factors. Scientists have successfully produced insulin with the help of recombinant DNA. Pharmaceutical industry has taken advantage of rDNA by making drugs. Recombinant DNA has enabled plants to make their own insecticides.
Recombinant DNA
Following are three methods through which recombinant DNA is made.
Transformation
- First the piece of DNA is selected which is to be inserted into the vector or plasmid.
- Isolated DNA piece is cut by using restriction enzymes.
- The cut piece is inserted into the vector where it attaches to the genetic material already present in the vector with the enzyme called DNA ligase .
- A genetic marker is used for the identification of recombinant DNA. Usually an antibiotic marker is used.
- This process of inserting vector into the host cell is called as transformation.
During the process of transformation, usually E. coli acts as a host cell. When a foreign gene is inserted into this vector, it is prepared before the insertion so that it accepts the gene. To keep the foreign gene or DNA different from the host cell’s genome, markers, color changes or some other characteristics are used.
Non-bacterial Transformation
This process of synthesis of recombinant DNA is different from the transformation process in the sense that it does not use bacteria as a host for the foreign DNA but other sources are used. For example, DNA microinjection is used in which cell is inserted into the nucleus of the recipient cell directly. Bioballistic is another method in which silver particles are used with the help of gene gun to bombard the recombinant DNA into the recipient cell.
Phage
In this process, a vector is used instead of bacteria as host cell. Phage is a type of virus which acts as a host cell for carrying recombinant DNA. Scientists inactivate the function of virus itself so that when it enters the body, it only inserts the recombinant DNA and does not cause any infections.
Function of Recombinant DNA
When the recombinant DNA enters the host cell, the host cell starts expressing the proteins present in the rDNA. If the expression factors are added along with the rDNA then host cell will be able to produce significant amount of proteins. Expression of the protein will not appear until there are some signals in the host cells. There are specific signals for every species of bacteria for example; E. coli does not get the signals of human terminators and promoters.
Importance of Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA is very helpful in techniques like gene therapy. It is helpful in curing different diseases like cancer. Healthy genes are inserted in the body and they replace the defected genes. Some other important features of recombinant DNA are that it can give better yield of crops. Disease like sickle cell anemia and hemophilia can be treated with recombinant DNA because it produces clotting factors. Scientists have successfully produced insulin with the help of recombinant DNA. Pharmaceutical industry has taken advantage of rDNA by making drugs. Recombinant DNA has enabled plants to make their own insecticides.
by joshuajoby at 07-27-2010, 07:37 AM
0 comments
Polymorphisms, in simple words can be described as variations. Polymorphisms which occur with a single nucleotide are SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISMS. Significance of SNPs are based on various factors like location, frequency, functional contribution to an organism.
SNPs could contribute to shortening of polypeptides, where the byproduct of the SNP could be a stop codon. These incomplete polypeptide becomes nonfunctional. SNPs that change the amino acid and therefore the destiny of the protein itself are the ones which gain more public interest. Some SNPs changes the amino acid in the polypeptide but still the protein would be as functional as a normal one these types are called silent SNPs, which normally do not have any significance. SNPs gain much of attention because of its critical role in a disease, onset of a disease (risk factor), drug response- hence pharmacogenomics, molecular marker etc.
Analyses of SNPs involve a variety of techniques. Various techniques can be used in identifying SNP like;
i. Real-time PCR
ii. Microarray
iii. Mass spectrometry
iv. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
One of its application is identifying the risk factor for a disease and evaluating SNP significance in a population. It is explained by an example below: Disease: Hypertension, Polymorphism: Apolipoprotein E. Apolipoprotein E (Apo E) is a 299-amino acid polypeptide synthesized in the liver and intestine. The gene that provides the instructions for making Apo E is called APO E gene. It is located in the long arm of chromosome 19 in a cluster with APOC1 and APOC2. The APO E gene locus is polymorphic with three major known alleles; APO E3, APO E4 and APO E2. (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene=apoe). APO E3 is the common allele present in most populations with the highest frequency. Investigations on Apo E gene and hypertension has suggested a protective role of APO E2 where, APO E4 is thought to increase the risk of high blood pressure.
RFLP method of identification involves ; DNA extraction from a control set as well as Known set for the disease. PCR Amplification of sequence using specific primers for APO E. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism- Selecting appropriate restriction enzyme is of utmost importance. Restriction Enzyme ; HhaI. PCR-RFLP analysis of the HhaI polymorphism at the APOE gene locus shows six possible genotypes based on the presence/absence of the restriction site. These genotypes are E3E3, E2E3, E3E4, E2E2, E2E4 and E4E4.Gel Electrophoresis- The presence or absence of the restriction site could give differences in the band size depending upon the genotype. The band sizes are 91bp, 81bp, 72bp, and 48bp
Analysis of SNP can be done by statistical evaluation of the result obtained in a population for the genotype frequency, frequency of allele in the population, its significance in diseased and control set. Calculating Genotype Frequency: using simple gene-counting method in determining the genotype frequency of Apo E genes. Calculating Allele Frequency the same way of calculating genotype frequency. Significance study using Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium either using softwares (eg. GENEPOP) or manually.
After the identification of the SNP, the SNP can either be uploaded on the database for SNP (dbSNP) or JSNP. Curated SNPs have Reference SNP number.
SNPs could contribute to shortening of polypeptides, where the byproduct of the SNP could be a stop codon. These incomplete polypeptide becomes nonfunctional. SNPs that change the amino acid and therefore the destiny of the protein itself are the ones which gain more public interest. Some SNPs changes the amino acid in the polypeptide but still the protein would be as functional as a normal one these types are called silent SNPs, which normally do not have any significance. SNPs gain much of attention because of its critical role in a disease, onset of a disease (risk factor), drug response- hence pharmacogenomics, molecular marker etc.
Analyses of SNPs involve a variety of techniques. Various techniques can be used in identifying SNP like;
i. Real-time PCR
ii. Microarray
iii. Mass spectrometry
iv. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
One of its application is identifying the risk factor for a disease and evaluating SNP significance in a population. It is explained by an example below: Disease: Hypertension, Polymorphism: Apolipoprotein E. Apolipoprotein E (Apo E) is a 299-amino acid polypeptide synthesized in the liver and intestine. The gene that provides the instructions for making Apo E is called APO E gene. It is located in the long arm of chromosome 19 in a cluster with APOC1 and APOC2. The APO E gene locus is polymorphic with three major known alleles; APO E3, APO E4 and APO E2. (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene=apoe). APO E3 is the common allele present in most populations with the highest frequency. Investigations on Apo E gene and hypertension has suggested a protective role of APO E2 where, APO E4 is thought to increase the risk of high blood pressure.
RFLP method of identification involves ; DNA extraction from a control set as well as Known set for the disease. PCR Amplification of sequence using specific primers for APO E. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism- Selecting appropriate restriction enzyme is of utmost importance. Restriction Enzyme ; HhaI. PCR-RFLP analysis of the HhaI polymorphism at the APOE gene locus shows six possible genotypes based on the presence/absence of the restriction site. These genotypes are E3E3, E2E3, E3E4, E2E2, E2E4 and E4E4.Gel Electrophoresis- The presence or absence of the restriction site could give differences in the band size depending upon the genotype. The band sizes are 91bp, 81bp, 72bp, and 48bp
Analysis of SNP can be done by statistical evaluation of the result obtained in a population for the genotype frequency, frequency of allele in the population, its significance in diseased and control set. Calculating Genotype Frequency: using simple gene-counting method in determining the genotype frequency of Apo E genes. Calculating Allele Frequency the same way of calculating genotype frequency. Significance study using Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium either using softwares (eg. GENEPOP) or manually.
After the identification of the SNP, the SNP can either be uploaded on the database for SNP (dbSNP) or JSNP. Curated SNPs have Reference SNP number.
by NatashaKundi at 07-26-2010, 11:19 PM
3 comments
Cancer is a life threatening disease which spreads rapidly in the body. Cancerous cells produce in the body more than the speed of normal cells and even the immune system of the body can’t consider them harmful. These cells form masses or lumps of the tissues and are called as tumors.
- Leukemia is one type of cancer which does not produce tumors but the blood cells divide abnormally and uncontrollably. There are different therapies for the cancer but none of them assures the complete removal of the disease fro the body. Scientists have thought of applying gene therapy to eradicate the disease and are certain that it will bring new hope for the cancer patients.
Method of Gene therapy and Cancer treatment
Gene therapy is the technique of genetic engineering in which new genes are replaced with healthy cells by using plasmids or vectors as gene carriers. It is going to bring new dimension to the treatment of cancer caused by mutations or damage to the DNA molecule. Scientists are still doing research to find methods that how gene therapy can be used to treat breast, lung and bone cancer. However, there are some assumptions which can be helpful in the treatment of disease of cancer.
There are different possibilities which can be used to treat cancer with gene therapy:
There are different possibilities which can be used to treat cancer with gene therapy:
- Genes specially designed for the treatment of cancer can be inserted into the cancerous cells so that they become sensitive and can be destroyed with chemotherapy.
- One possibility is that genes can be inserted into the cancer cells, they will release toxin which will completely disable them to function in a negative way.
- Genes can also make the cancerous cells unstable. Usually caner cells do not allow the faulty DNA to repair which results in the rapid growth of abnormal cells.
- As cancer is caused due to the mutations in the genes, that is why if healthy genes are added in place of abnormal or missing genes, they will start working in a normal way.
Gene therapy can also work the other way round. It can make immune system so strong that it can easily recognize the cancerous cells in the body and completely destroy them. It can be done by tagging the cancer cells with special tags so that immune system can easily recognize them and destroy the completely or block their function.
Though Gene therapy is being used for many genetic diseases and has given successful results but a lot of advancements are required yet to use this technique against cancer. Many be many years will be needed before gene therapy is fully available for treating cancer. In 2006, scientists got successful results of gene therapy when applied against treatment of cancer. Researchers removed the immune system cells called as T-lymphocytes and they added a new gene to these cells. this new gene enabled the immune cells to identify the cancerous cells from he body and destroy them. When these cells were inserted back in the patients’ body, most of the patient showed tremendous results.
by NatashaKundi at 07-26-2010, 12:09 AM
18 comments
Bacteria are the unicellular organisms and cannot be seen with naked eye. There is no particular method of cell division, they simply divide by binary fission in which cell divides into two daughter cells. They do not have proper nucleus within the cell but the genetic material is attached to the cell membrane in an irregular form. They are found everywhere like top of the mountains, rivers, on land and in ice. Bacteria have the property of living in extreme weathers like extreme cold and extreme heat. They are able to live long because they become inactive for a long period of time.
Bacteria play an important role in the environment:
Decomposition of Dead/Complex Organic Matter:
Nitrogen Fixation for availability to Plants
Bioremediation by bacteria
Bioremediation refers to the process of depletion/degradation of toxic compounds present in the natural environment by living organisms. Bacteria are one of the key players in Bioremediation. For example, oil spills due to oil digging operations or accidents on oil transport channels in the ocean or on the soil, is highly determinant to the healthy environment. Bacteria like Pseudomonas have been well known for the degradation of oil spills on oceans/soils.
Similarly, Contamination of heavy metals in the environment is a major global concern because of their toxicity and
threat to human life and environment. Bacteria like Alcaligenes faecalis (Arsenic), Pseudomonas fluorescens and Enterobacter clocae (Chromium) are well known for heavy metal uptake/compound metabolism.
Waste Water Treatment
Owing to their characteristics of degrading harmful chemicals and pollutants, bacteria naturally (as well as deliberately used by industries), help in treatment of waste water.
![[Image: images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQ2lFkiwzAUFUXjiKC7kQw...eSS6iveLDq]](https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQ2lFkiwzAUFUXjiKC7kQwza66b0wNTm710V3FQb-eSS6iveLDq)
Bacteria play an important role in the environment:
Decomposition of Dead/Complex Organic Matter:
Ever imagined the fate of nature with dead matter of animals/plants lying around? Bacteria play a very crucial role of silently getting the nature rid of the dead matter through the decomposition of dead organic matter by the micobes. Bacteria use them as a source of nutrients, and in turn help in recycling the organic compounds trapped in the dead matter. Through this process, other organisms also get benefited, who can use the simpler forms of organic compounds/nutrients released from the dead matter by various bacteria.
![[Image: microbes_bac_decomposition_lge.png]](http://www.teachoceanscience.net/images/microbes_bac_decomposition_lge.png)
Quote:Organic carbon present in the environment in the form of dead organisms might eat up all the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere if there were no decomposers present on earth. One can imagine the situation if there were no carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. There would have been no photosynthesis in the plants and as a result no food would have been produced by plants. Decomposers or bacteria help in cycling of minerals like carbon and sulfur.
Nitrogen Fixation for availability to Plants
Nitrogen is the most important element for plants. Plants totally rely on nitrogen for their health and growth, and they cannot inhale it directly from the environment. They are dependent upon soil for the supply of nitrogen.
Through the process of nitrogen fixation, nitrogen from the atmosphere becomes available to the plants. This process takes place with the help of nitrogen fixing bacteria like Rhizobium and Cyanobacteria. These species of bacteria convert the atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and nitrites as a part of their metabolism, and make it available to the plants. Some plants (leguminous plants) have modified themselves so well that they have a mutualistic association with the bacteria living into their tissues.
Through the process of nitrogen fixation, nitrogen from the atmosphere becomes available to the plants. This process takes place with the help of nitrogen fixing bacteria like Rhizobium and Cyanobacteria. These species of bacteria convert the atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and nitrites as a part of their metabolism, and make it available to the plants. Some plants (leguminous plants) have modified themselves so well that they have a mutualistic association with the bacteria living into their tissues.
![[Image: nitrogenfixation.jpg]](http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/pix/nitrogenfixation.jpg)
Bioremediation by bacteria
Bioremediation refers to the process of depletion/degradation of toxic compounds present in the natural environment by living organisms. Bacteria are one of the key players in Bioremediation. For example, oil spills due to oil digging operations or accidents on oil transport channels in the ocean or on the soil, is highly determinant to the healthy environment. Bacteria like Pseudomonas have been well known for the degradation of oil spills on oceans/soils.
Similarly, Contamination of heavy metals in the environment is a major global concern because of their toxicity and
threat to human life and environment. Bacteria like Alcaligenes faecalis (Arsenic), Pseudomonas fluorescens and Enterobacter clocae (Chromium) are well known for heavy metal uptake/compound metabolism.
Waste Water Treatment
Owing to their characteristics of degrading harmful chemicals and pollutants, bacteria naturally (as well as deliberately used by industries), help in treatment of waste water.
Image source: biologia.laguia2000.com
by NatashaKundi at 07-26-2010, 12:05 AM
9 comments
Genetic Engineering is the technique of biotechnology which helps in preparing recombinant DNA. DNA molecule is cut into small pieces in in vitro environment. There are numerous techniques which have been used in genetic engineering for example, recombinant DNA technology, microinjection, bioballistics, electro and chemical poration.
Techniques:-
Recombinant DNA:-
Following steps are involved in recombinant DNA technique;
1) Gene of interest is isolated from the DNA molecule using the restriction enzymes.
2) After isolation, gene is inserted into a vector and is cloned to make multiple copies of gene of interest.
3) When the cloning is done, the gene is incorporated into the plasmid.
4) Now the gene or DNA along with the plasmid is called as recombinant DNA.
Plasmids and vectors used for the recombinant technique are usually bacteria or viruses. They have the ability to carry foreign genes into the host cell where they release the gene of interest and this gene replaces the diseased gene.
Plasmid is a circular piece containing the genetic material. When new gene is inserted in it, it opens it ring and new gene is attached to its ends through the enzyme called as ligase. New gene replicates along with the plasmid’s genetic material. For example if plasmid is carrying a gene of insulin, t will start producing the protein of insulin along with other gene products. Bacteria are of great significance in the pharmaceutical industry because they are used to produce insulin and other useful proteins.
Vectors are usually viruses which are also helpful in genetic engineering. Virus is an infectious organism, so when a new gene is inserted in it, it transfers that gene into the host cell during causing infection. Scientists mostly block the function of virus when they insert the foreign gene; this way virus will only be able to replicate only the gene of interest and will insert it into the host cell.
Electro and chemical poration:-
In this method, pores are created in the membrane of the cell and genes can be transferred easily. Special chemicals are used to make pores in the cell surface. Sometimes cells are exposed to weak electric current, it also makes pores in the surface of the cells and genes can easily pass through these pores.
Bioballistics method:-
In this method, small silver particles are used to insert the genetic material into the recipient cell. These silvers are coated with the genetic material and when released in the cell, genetic material incorporates with the genes of the host cell. In one projectile method, shot gun is used to insert the silvers into the host cell.
Microinjection:-
It is not necessary that only plasmids and vectors should be used for the transfer of genes into the cells. There are methods which are not dependent on plasmids and vectors. One of these methods is microinjection. In this method, foreign gene is integrated into the cell by just injecting it into the recipient cell. When large cell of plants and animals are concerned, then a fine glass needle is used. The injected genes automatically enter into the nucleus where they incorporate with the host cell’s genetic material and replicate.
Techniques:-
Recombinant DNA:-
Following steps are involved in recombinant DNA technique;
1) Gene of interest is isolated from the DNA molecule using the restriction enzymes.
2) After isolation, gene is inserted into a vector and is cloned to make multiple copies of gene of interest.
3) When the cloning is done, the gene is incorporated into the plasmid.
4) Now the gene or DNA along with the plasmid is called as recombinant DNA.
Plasmids and vectors used for the recombinant technique are usually bacteria or viruses. They have the ability to carry foreign genes into the host cell where they release the gene of interest and this gene replaces the diseased gene.
Plasmid is a circular piece containing the genetic material. When new gene is inserted in it, it opens it ring and new gene is attached to its ends through the enzyme called as ligase. New gene replicates along with the plasmid’s genetic material. For example if plasmid is carrying a gene of insulin, t will start producing the protein of insulin along with other gene products. Bacteria are of great significance in the pharmaceutical industry because they are used to produce insulin and other useful proteins.
Vectors are usually viruses which are also helpful in genetic engineering. Virus is an infectious organism, so when a new gene is inserted in it, it transfers that gene into the host cell during causing infection. Scientists mostly block the function of virus when they insert the foreign gene; this way virus will only be able to replicate only the gene of interest and will insert it into the host cell.
Electro and chemical poration:-
In this method, pores are created in the membrane of the cell and genes can be transferred easily. Special chemicals are used to make pores in the cell surface. Sometimes cells are exposed to weak electric current, it also makes pores in the surface of the cells and genes can easily pass through these pores.
Bioballistics method:-
In this method, small silver particles are used to insert the genetic material into the recipient cell. These silvers are coated with the genetic material and when released in the cell, genetic material incorporates with the genes of the host cell. In one projectile method, shot gun is used to insert the silvers into the host cell.
Microinjection:-
It is not necessary that only plasmids and vectors should be used for the transfer of genes into the cells. There are methods which are not dependent on plasmids and vectors. One of these methods is microinjection. In this method, foreign gene is integrated into the cell by just injecting it into the recipient cell. When large cell of plants and animals are concerned, then a fine glass needle is used. The injected genes automatically enter into the nucleus where they incorporate with the host cell’s genetic material and replicate.
by joshuajoby at 07-24-2010, 12:24 AM
6 comments
Therapeutic usage of genes can be either preventive or curative for genetic disorders. There are several approaches to alter the onset of the disorder which includes; Gene Replacement- The gene responsible for the disease can be replaced by a healthy one, Gene Insertion- Inserting a functional gene, Gene Silencing – Silencing gene which is responsible for particular disease. It can be done in Somatic cells as well as in Germline cells. Treatments in the somatic cells are done in phenotypic level, where the alteration done in these cells are not carried to the next generation. Germline cell treatments are done in the genotypic level, where the genetic makeup of an organism is altered and hence passed over to the next generation.
Vectors for the gene can be categorized as viral and nonviral.Examples for viral vectors are Retrovirus, Adenovirus, Adeno-associated virus, Herpes- simplex virus etc. Nonviral vectors include Liposomes, Conjugates and DNA injection.
Recent Research activities in treatment of genetic disorders using gene therapy are discussed below;
Hemophilia A- Researchers from Minnesota Medical School developed a nanocapsule, SB transposon(SB-Tn) coated with hyaluronane, targeting the hepatic cells. The quality of the encoated nanocapsule carrying b domain deleted factor viii gene (B--FVII) was tested by targeting the hepatic cells. It was observed that the bleeding was reduced in mice significantly.
Parkinson disease- A team of scientists from the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) were successful in treating Parkinson’s disease in monkeys. Monkeys were modified to develop Parkinson’s and then later treated with AAV-GDNF gene therapy. glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor GDNF gene, acts as a growth factor for dopaminergic neurons. The animals produced relatively higher levels of dopamine.
Gene therapy using Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH), Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) and GTP-cyclohyrolase 1 (GCH) are under development.
X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy - Dr. Patrick Aubourg of the University Paris-Descartes and team have clinically experimented on two children suffering from X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy. This is a condition where ALD gene fails in the production of ALD protein, a protein which is required for degradation of fatty acids. Inactive HIV was the vector used for the delivery of the gene to the cells.
Cancer- Researchers at Strathclyde University claims to achieve 90% success rate in treating the skin cancer. Plasma protein- transferrin was used for this purpose. Over a month regression of tumors with no side effects were observed.
Heart failure- Research team from University of California inserted a recombinant gene for AAV- SERCA2a, gene which regulates calcium metabolism and a major factor for the contraction of the heart muscles into coronary arteries.
Diabetics- Scientists from Baylor College of Medicine, Houston solved the defects that cause Type 1 diabetes: autoimmune attack and death of the insulin-producing beta cells. They used a novel approach towards both the conditions, interleukin-10 gene was inserted to the mice resulting in preventing the B cells and reversal of diabetes.
These research works are undergoing pre-clinical trials on animals and some on humans. Experimental works on gene therapy are not limited in this article. Numerous research works are currently happening around the globe.
Vectors for the gene can be categorized as viral and nonviral.Examples for viral vectors are Retrovirus, Adenovirus, Adeno-associated virus, Herpes- simplex virus etc. Nonviral vectors include Liposomes, Conjugates and DNA injection.
Scientists from Ohio University designed new nonviral vector, a nanoparticle (conjugate) which can be viewed only by atomic force microscope. It was developed by conjugating calcium phosphate and lipid shell. This vector along with GFP (Green fluorescent protein) was injected into mouse cells to test the efficacy of the vector. It was observed that the vector could successfully deliver the DNA into the cells without any degradation, resulting in the fluorescing of cells with minimal damage.
Gene therapy is considered as a magic bullet for many diseases. It has achieved success as a curative for ADA- SCID (Severe Combined Immune Deficiency) –type of SCID where the Adenosine deaminase gene is defective.Recent Research activities in treatment of genetic disorders using gene therapy are discussed below;
Hemophilia A- Researchers from Minnesota Medical School developed a nanocapsule, SB transposon(SB-Tn) coated with hyaluronane, targeting the hepatic cells. The quality of the encoated nanocapsule carrying b domain deleted factor viii gene (B--FVII) was tested by targeting the hepatic cells. It was observed that the bleeding was reduced in mice significantly.
Parkinson disease- A team of scientists from the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) were successful in treating Parkinson’s disease in monkeys. Monkeys were modified to develop Parkinson’s and then later treated with AAV-GDNF gene therapy. glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor GDNF gene, acts as a growth factor for dopaminergic neurons. The animals produced relatively higher levels of dopamine.
Gene therapy using Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH), Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) and GTP-cyclohyrolase 1 (GCH) are under development.
X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy - Dr. Patrick Aubourg of the University Paris-Descartes and team have clinically experimented on two children suffering from X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy. This is a condition where ALD gene fails in the production of ALD protein, a protein which is required for degradation of fatty acids. Inactive HIV was the vector used for the delivery of the gene to the cells.
Cancer- Researchers at Strathclyde University claims to achieve 90% success rate in treating the skin cancer. Plasma protein- transferrin was used for this purpose. Over a month regression of tumors with no side effects were observed.
Heart failure- Research team from University of California inserted a recombinant gene for AAV- SERCA2a, gene which regulates calcium metabolism and a major factor for the contraction of the heart muscles into coronary arteries.
Diabetics- Scientists from Baylor College of Medicine, Houston solved the defects that cause Type 1 diabetes: autoimmune attack and death of the insulin-producing beta cells. They used a novel approach towards both the conditions, interleukin-10 gene was inserted to the mice resulting in preventing the B cells and reversal of diabetes.
These research works are undergoing pre-clinical trials on animals and some on humans. Experimental works on gene therapy are not limited in this article. Numerous research works are currently happening around the globe.