Antisense therapy is one of the types of treatment for genetic disorders. The therapy aims at working at the mRNA level and switching off the translation of the protein from the mRNA of a mutated gene. Hence, the antisense drugs are responsible for the silencing of the gene responsible for the disease and thereby have great potential to cure many incurable, genetic diseases. Extensive research is going on in this field to develop antisense drugs for HIV, Cancer, Asthma, etc.

Antisense refers to a stretch of oliognucleotides, which may be DNA or RNA, that is complementary to the mRNA, produced from the target gene. The antisense, then binds to the mRNA and stop the translation and expression of the protein from the mRNA, thereby silencing the target gene, although the exact mechanism by which the gene silencing takes place is not certain. It is proposed that maybe the mRNA and antisense oligonucleotides or ASO form a duplex structure, thereby mediating the cleavage of mRNA by RNAase H. Some other models have also been proposed like the mRNA transport to the cytoplasm being prevented, the formation of triple helix structure by the binding of the ASO with the duplex DNA, inhibiting DNA transcription, inhibition of the splicing of the mRNA, etc. The construction of a proper ASO is very essential and is possible only after the proper study of the genes responsible for the disease and the sequence of the mRNA formed from the transcription of the gene. The site available for the hybridization of the ASO on the mRNA must also be known as then only the ASO can bind to the mRNA and switch off the expression of the mRNA. The in-vivo stability of the ASO is crucial as it has to reach the target mRNA within the cell without getting degraded. The ASO drugs are developed by proper chemical modification to their backbone structure such that they are resistant to the degradation by nuclease and have proper tissue distribution within the body along with good in-vivo half life.

The use of ASO drugs over other drugs is advantageous as the latter usually target the proteins formed during the expression of the disease, while the former works at the gene level. The ASOs being made of nucleotides are much easier to prepare as only the sequence of the mRNA is needed. The ASO target is only of one domain, compared to multiple domains in case of protein related drugs. Hence, the sensitivity of the ASO drugs can be easily measured by scanning or the southern and northern blotting. The manifestation of the diseases in case of the ASO drugs is much less as the mRNA is itself silenced, hence to overcome this silencing the clonal expansion of the cells that is needed takes a long time. The binding of the ASO with the mRNA is by means of hydrogen bonds, which is much more stronger than any other types of forces like Van der Waals force, etc which occurs in case of the binding of the drugs to proteins.

The research on the ASO therapeutics has moved from the pre-clinical models to the clinical trials. Antisense technology has proved to be a formidable tool for the discovery and study of the various physiological and pathological processes within the body. The research going on will refine the drug delivery methods, specificity, and affinity of the antisense therapeutics, which would be a better tool for the treatment of the patients considering the progress in the use of various gene therapies for treating incurable diseases. ASOs are being researched upon for the treatment of different types of cancer, diabetes, Duchanne muscular dystrophy, obesity, different inflammatory diseases like Asthma, autoimmune diseases like HIV/AIDS, different cardiovascular diseases and many other diseases.

Antisense technology has proved to be better method of treatment considering short drug development time and lesser failure in clinical trials compared to other traditional drugs. The approach of the antisense technology is in accord with the latest, emerging technology in the drug development process, technologies based on genome and the integration of the therapeutics with diagnostics. Hence, these advantages put the ASO therapy on a higher scale than the other drugs targeting proteins, which gives scope for further research on the topic. Antisense technology has provided a good base for the research of more new and highly specific therapeutics.

Tissue engineering is combining latest technological discoveries, materials and methods with living cells to replace, repair or improve affected organ.

List of tissues and organs that are manufactured in laboratory using engineering techniques is long, but some of the most famous are:
In-vitro meat, bioartificial liver device, artificial pancreas, bone marrow, skin, bladder, vessels etc

This type of engineering utilizes living cells as building elements. Using enzymes, cells could be extracted from the solid or liquid environment (depending of the cell type and tissue) and further manipulated.

Cells used for engineering could be:

• Autologues (donated by the same person that will use artificial organ/tissue)
  
• Allogeneic (when derived from the same species)
  
• Xenogenic (when derived from other species)
  
• Syngenic or isogenic (isolated from twins or clones)
  
• Primary (when donated by organism)
  
• Secondary (when donated by cell bank)
  
• Stem cells (with multiple application as they could differentiate in every cell line needed)
  

Pancreas is organ with numerous functions. It works as endocrine gland producing hormones that regulate blood sugar level and as exocrine organ, producing enzymes essential for proper food digestion. Most famous and spread illness resulting from pancreas dysfunction is diabetes. Every 1 out of 400 children have diabetes as well as 11.3% of adults over 20 years and 26.9% of people over 65 years. People suffering from diabetes need to monitor blood sugar level regularly and prevent hyperglycemic crises by injecting insulin subcutaneously. Main goal of artificial pancreas is to ease the insulin therapy or to improve the insulin replacement therapy.

Couple approaches are used: gene therapy, artificial organ development and insulin pumps that are monitoring blood sugar level continuously.
 
Gene therapy uses viral vectors equipped with insulin sequence. After orally ingested, virus will deliver its genetic information to the upper part of the intestinal tract. Infected cells are acting like any virus containing cells by replicating newly derived genetic material. If targeted delivery is made and cells responsive to glucose are infected – full control may be achieved (insulin will be produced only when needed). Cells containing insulin sequence will die after some time (intestinal cells don’t have long lifespan) and new cells will be infected with additional oral medication. Another way to use gene therapy is to turn duodenum cells into beta cells by delivering beta cell DNA. Some of the cells will turn into insulin producing beta cells that could divide further and ensure stable and self renewable number of beta cells in duodenum.

Artificial pancreas is created using mesh of fibers (ensuring strength), encapsulated clusters of islet cells (to avoid immune response), semi-permeable coating (to ensure normal diffusion of nutrients and hormones) and biocompatible outer layer (to keep them all together without inducing fibrotic response). Main goal is to ensure normal functioning of islet cells, where insulin, glucagon and amylin will be secreted in response to glucose in the blood.

Some of the insulin pumps with continuous monitoring of blood sugar level are already in the clinical trials. Glucose sensor need to be inserted in the neck vein. Electric wire transmits information on glucose level to the insulin pump that is releasing necessary dose of insulin. Those devices proved to be effective, but glucose sensor doesn’t last long and needs to be replaced every 9 months.  

It may sound like science fiction, but era of artificial organs and tissue engineering is our reality. Saving lives, making treatments easier, eradicating serious illnesses – it looks promising for sure.

The restoration, maintenance and protection of the environment with the help of biological agents, which includes both the living organisms and their components along with the physical, chemical and engineering processes is known as Environmental Biotechnology. Industrial Microbiology also plays an important role in the preservation of the environment. Hence, in many cases, Microbiology and environmental Biotechnology go hand in hand and both are interdependent on each other.

Environmental Biotechnology is mainly concerned with the removal and treatment of the wastes, solid or liquid, from various sources like the industrial, domestic, municipal, or agricultural. The main part is in the conversion or degradation of the xenobiotic compounds, which are released into the environment by the wastewater streams of industries. The ever-increasing population has caused the disposal of different types of wastes into the environment. This has resulted in the pollution of both land and water environment. Due to the seriousness of the issue of pollution of the water bodies, various steps are being taken for the treatment of the wastes. The wastes from domestic and commercial sources are treated to make them chemically and biologically harmless by nitrification and removal of suspended and dissolved harmful compounds. These types of treatment not only prevent the spread of epidemic water-borne diseases, but also the pollution of potable water supplies, land and water contamination, etc. Various types of analysis of the water sources are done like the Biological oxygen demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), total solids (TS), etc to determine the polluting strength of the wastes and after proper analysis, the type of treatment to be done is determined.

In the present times, the treatment of the wastewater has become one of the major applications of biotechnology. The industrial wastewater is more polluted than the domestic sewage. The different options for the treatment of the wastewater are:

a) Biological, which includes various aerobic and anaerobic processes,
b) Chemical, which includes electrochemical processes, coagulation, etc,
c) Physical, which includes sedimentation, etc

In most of the cases, all the three methods are employed for the treatment of the wastewater. The wastewater first undergoes primary treatment involving sedimentation followed by secondary treatment involving biological process with microbes. The aerobic treatment of the wastewater involves the bringing into contact of the wastewater with the aerobes and oxygen, which gives rise to excess biomass and CO2 in the process, thereby reducing the efficiency of the process. The anaerobic treatment involves the interaction of the facultative and the obligate anaerobic organisms, thereby producing methane, CO2, etc with very less formation of new cells and hence biomass.

Composting is another method used for the processing of solid organic wastes by microorganisms. The solid wastes are converted to humified product used for increasing the fertility of the soil by a sequence of microbial processes including fermentation. Xenobiotics are compounds that are not recognised by the microorganisms and hence remain in native form in the environment, as they are not degraded easily. They remain so due to their complex structures and absence of one or more steps in the sequence of biodegradation including the formation of toxic intermediates. However, extensive research in the present times has made possible the biodegradation of the xenobiotics by the formation of genetically engineered microorganisms, which can degrade them and treatment with immobilized enzymes for degradation.

The other process of removing the toxic solid wastes in the land and water is bioremediation. Bioremediation involves the utilization of the indigenous microorganisms by enhancing their growth by the addition of specific nutrients in the soil and water in order to detoxify the wastes present in situ. Biomining or the mineral leaching with the use of microorganisms to extract minerals from tough, low-grade ores, sludges, and wastes is also a major advancement in environmental biotechnology. The use of genetically engineered microorganisms yields their better resistance to temperature, pH, etc thereby making the process much easier. The microbes are now being used for the desulphurization of the fuels like coal thus helping largely in the prevention of formation of pollutants like SO2, which are formed during the burning of coal. The generation of genetically engineered microorganisms for use as bioinsecticides is also a major turning point, thereby reducing the use of chemicals as insecticides, which may cause pollution indirectly. Thus, major advances in environmental biotechnology with the use of microbiology are proving to be a boon for the welfare of the living community of the environment.

The Idea of In Vitro meat or Shmeat or Cultured meat is older that we might think.

World population exceeded 7 billion on March 12, 2012. Out of those 7 billions, just couple percent are vegetarians. Majority of world population is eating meat on a regular basis.

What are the main issues with meat productions? Even if you are not vegetarian, fact that one million chickens are killed per hour will leave you speechless. 40 billion animals are killed each year just in USA. A cattle farming is responsible for ~18% of greenhouse gases. Animals are treated with numerous hormones (to ensure fast grow) and antibiotics (to prevent illnesses) that will eventually end up in consumer's stomach. If you are eating fish – mercury is almost certainly present as well. Besides that, meat can also be source of viruses that could be easily transmitted from animals to humans. Meat contains more or less grease that inevitably result in high cholesterol level and increased number of coronary disorders each year. Meat is not cheap product, and lots of people are forced to be vegetarians as they can't afford it in their diets.

Idea of In Vitro meat is older that we might think. Winston Churchill predicted that meat will be generated artificially by developing just edible parts of the animals in the future. NASA conducted first experiments to create In Vitro meat as astronautic food in the '90 of previous century. They are producing In Vitro meat using the turkey cells. First edible form of meat from the “tube” was fish finger resembling meat derived from the golden fish. However, greatest breakthrough in this area is made in 2001 when group of Dutch scientists start experimenting with novel “meat breading” technique. Idea was to seed muscle cell with collagen matrix and bathe them together in nutritious solution. By 2009 they manage to create In Vitro meat out of pig cell. PETA offered 1 million dollars prize in 2008 to the first company who manage to bring lab grown chicken to the market by 2012. Today, ~30 companies around the world are focused on research and development of In Vitro meat, but consumers still haven't tasted any of it.

Muscles are made of fibers. Adult muscle has satellite cells between muscle fibers. Normally, those are quiescent cells and activity is triggered by muscle damage. Once activated, they proliferate as skeletal myoblast followed by myogenic differentiation until new fiber is formed. This feature is used for In Vitro meat production. Another precursor of muscle fibers is embryonic stem cells. After initial muscle cell is extracted from the animal and placed in the dish – added proteins will induce cell growth. Just as blood is providing muscle with needed nutrients while in the body, proper nutrition is essential for the muscle growing in the lab. Waste products need to be removed whenever they appear. Regular muscle development is assured by chemical messengers produced by nearby adipocyte cells (that are grown as separate culture). Most important thing in the whole process is to keep muscle active by inducing contractions artificially (by stretching). It sounds complicated, but it's more that sustainable. Using just one animal, a billion pounds of meat could be created and world population would have enough meat for couple hundred years.

Health effects of this kind of meat are not tested on humans yet. Amount of hormones and chemicals in the In Vitro meat can be controlled and some useful substances could be added to increase its nutritional value (such as omega 3 fatty acids). It has different smell, shape and taste compared to conventional meat and manufacturers are concerned that people wouldn't accept it even if become cheaper than marketed meat. So far, produced In Vitro meat is very expensive. Piece of beef weighting 250 grams costs 1 million dollars. Improvements in technology will reduce the cost in the future. Other advantages of In Vitro meat development are associated with environmental benefits. It's estimated that In Vitro meat production is wasting 45% less energy than conventional meat production; just 4% of greenhouse gasses are emitted during In Vitro meat production and 2% of land that is normally used for global meat and livestock industry is necessary for In Vitro meat production.

In Vitro meat (or shmeat, as some comedians are calling it) is still dealing with lot of issues, but as with so many other things – all difficulties its production is facing today will be eliminated with technological improvements. I can't wait to see In Vitro meet in groceries, not because I enjoy exploring new tastes, but because I'm huge animal lover and vegetarian

Nanotoxicology is scientific discipline that investigates toxicity of nanoparticles and nanoderivates that could have negative impact on environment and living creatures. It’s basically safety assessment of nanotechnology.

Application of nanotechnology is incredible and it can be seen everywhere you look: from vehicle fuels, sun creams, medications, flat screens, batteries up to agriculture. However, safety assessment of nanoparticles showed that effect they have on the planet isn’t always positive.

Average size of nanoparticle is between 1-100 nm. Physical effects and biological activity of those small particles are different compared with their larger counterparts. In other words, same chemical possesses different physical features and biological effects depending on the size of its particles. Quantum size effect and large surface area to volume ratio are “side” effects of resizing to the nano level. Quantum size effect is responsible for changes in mechanical, electric and optic behavior in nanomaterials. Large surface area to volume ratio increases chemical and biological reactivity of the particles. All nanomaterials are artificial and living organisms don't have natural protective mechanisms that could save them from possible deleterious effects of nanotech. What are the most negative effects of nanotechnology?

We are inhaling, ingesting or absorbing nanoparticles through the skin all the time. Our immune system couldn’t recognize and fight them easily due to their tinny size. After inhaled or swallowed, they are traveling to distant parts of our body and eventually end up in brain, liver, lungs and other vital organs. Once in the cell, nanoparticles induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. ROS are responsible for a lot of negative effects on the cellular level: oxidative stress, inflammation, DNA and protein damage….They will adsorb to macromolecules they encounter while traveling through the body, thanks to their large surface area. Normal biochemical processes will inevitably suffer if macromolecule is regulatory enzyme or protein. Some nanoparticles like carbon nanotubes have needle like shape and effect similar to that observed with asbestos (pleural abnormalities and mesothelioma are highly associated with this type of nanomaterial).

Medaka is see-through fish often used as a test organism because it’s small, has short life cycle and high tolerability to salinity and temperature changes. Fluorescent nanoparticles used in medaka nanotoxicity study showed that nanoparticles are mostly accumulated in vital organs, such as brain, liver, gills, intestine and testis. Yolk in the eggs also accumulated high amount of nanoparticles. Study showed that salinity may affect nanoparticles absorption.

Some other study showed that smaller organisms such as water flee couldn’t survive pollution with nanoparticles at all. By removing a species from its natural environment – food chain is seriously affected.

Nanopollution is term used to describe accumulation of nanotechnology products and waste created during nanotech manufacturing process. Nanopollution is still lacking necessary data to conclude overall impact this kind of technology will have on our environment. Much more money is spent on novel nanoproduct development than on ecological fate investigation (in 2002. 710 million dollars were spent on nanotechnology research and 500,000 dollars were spent on environmental impact assessment). What is known so far is that nanoparticles can be released both if they are in free or bound form. During manufacturing process (while they are still in free from) they could be released in the air or water. After releasing, they will travel longer of shorter distances before reaching final destination. When nanoparticles are integrated in already formed material, they could “escape” once material is disposed as waste or when recycling process start. In each case, nanoparticles will accumulate in the air, water or soil ecosystem and affect the living creatures in numerous ways.

Nanotechnology is highly applicable to agriculture. Like drug delivery systems that target exact cells in humans, farmers are using carbon nanotubes to deliver pesticides, fertilizers or some other chemical to the certain plant cells. Since nanoproducts used in agriculture could easily enter nearby ecological niches, quantification of the nanoparticles is necessary and highly recommended. Before microwave heating is invented, Raman spectrometry and electron microscopy was used to detect nanoparticles in the biological samples. Microwave heating technology is used for both detection and accurate measurement of their concentration in the sample. This is non-expensive and fast method, essential for nanotoxicology risk assessment that could provide all missing data and reveal all nanopollution associated problems.

With improved knowledge and more evidence, new regulative could be made and nanoparticles production could be drastically changed. So far, it’s all under investigation.

Nanotechnology is relatively new discipline, but it’s already incorporated in every aspect of our lives, including medicine. Drug delivery, imaging, cancer detection & treatment, cell and tissue repair, as well as development of novel medical tools and devices have undergone major transformations and significant improvements after nanotechnology is applied.

Classic medical treatments are dealing with few problems. Drugs are given in higher doses to ensure that they’ll exert anticipated action before they get metabolized and excreted. All drugs have some sort of adverse effects, and as higher dose (or prolonged treatment) is used – more damage to the healthy cells will be induced. Before any kind of therapy is prescribed, body needs to be examined. In serious cases, when cancer is present, imaging is what determines the course of treatment. If tumor is not visualized and assessed well – therapy will probably fail. Cancer treatment is problem for itself because most medical approaches affect surrounding healthy cells and induce detrimental effect on the body as a whole. When drugs can’t help, surgical operation can be solution. Incision is making more or less damage on the tissues and organs that need to be sewed fast and carefully. That’s not always simple thing to do. And finally, some hot spots in the body are hard to reach or need to be treated efficiently before infection (for example) starts spreading. All of these problems could be solved using nanotechnology.

Bioavailability is term used to describe amount of drug available in the part of the body where it’s most needed. 65 million dollars are spent each year due to low bioavailability of the marketed drugs. Latest drug delivery systems are designed to increase bioavailability so that drug could exert its action without affecting the rest of the body. Targeted action is accomplished by creating drug delivery systems that are able to pass silently (to avoid immune reaction), to travel long distances to reach disease area and to release the drug after they enter sick cells. Nanocarrier is largest part of this system and their role is to recognize blood vessels that are supplying affected tissue. Once in the right vessels, nanocarriers start to degrade resulting in subsequent release of the nanoparticles with drug. They will continue the journey through small pores in the blood vessels until they finally enter sick cell. This system is using lower concentration of drug than conventional therapy because its action is targeted and localized.

Imaging and diagnostics are essential to provide best therapeutic solutions. Some nanoparticles are recognizing proteins indicative of certain types of carcinoma (carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles can efficiently detect oral carcinoma). Quantum dots can be used for cancer detection as they are emitting light when combined with MRI. Fluorescent quantum dots are producing high quality contrast image but safety of this method is not confirmed yet. MRI imaging of the tumor can be improved using iron oxide nanoparticles combined with peptide that binds to the tumor cells. Identification of the viruses and bacteria can be done once they are separated from the blood using the silver nanorods. Gold nanoparticles carrying antibodies are used for the detection of the flu virus.

Tumor targeting can be accomplished by drug delivery system. Paclitaxel (mitotic inhibitor) coated with albumin (altogether known as abraxane) is targeting breast cancer. Another way to destroy tumor is to use heat therapy by designing antibodies (that will bind to the target cells) combined with nanotubes. After infrared laser is applied, nanotubes will absorb energy and radiate heat to its environment (burning down tumor cells).

Flesh welder could be used for fusing dissected vessels. Gold coated shells and infrared laser could reconnect blood vessels during the surgery and especially after organ transplantation.

“Hard to reach places” such as damaged joints can be healed using the nanofibers that could stimulate cartilage production. Staphylococcal infections could be treated using cream with nanoparticles containing nitric oxide gas. Wound could be treated against infection using nanocrystalline silver as silver is known bacterial killer. Besides that, wound could be treated with nanocapsules containing antibiotics. Trigger for antibiotic release is bacterial overgrowth, which guarantee immediate action and quicker treatment.

Nanotechnology improved healing methods by targeting diseased cells, by increasing drug bioavailability, by improving diagnostic and imaging techniques and by effective treatments. There are a lot of other nanotech options that could save or prolong our lives and that are under investigation right now. Ultimate goal is to develop molecular machines that will recognize and enter sick cell and induce reorganization in molecular structures and biochemical processes until the “healthy state” is reestablished.

The travel of genes through and between populations across geographical barriers is called as ‘Gene flow’. Gene flow is identified as one of the tool to evolution. Evolution is the term applied to a population when a new variant is derived from a common population due to changes in genetic characteristics. This change in genetic characteristics a cause for evolution can be due to mutation, genetic drifting, Natural selection, Environmental fitness- survival of the fittest and Gene flow.

The Mechanism of Gene flow: A species or animal or individual detaches from its own group (population), migrates and enters the other group, brings a change in the characteristics of the native population by passing its gene through reproduction. This clearly indicates the change in genetic nature of a native population by the migrated individual is possible only through fusion of gametes, reproduction.

Types of Gene Flow: The observation of the travel of the gene between the source and the destination is useful in classifying gene flow into two types. They are intra species gene transfer and interspecies gene transfer. For example if the gene flow is between a goat of one population and a goat in the other population then it is called as intra species gene flow. Whereas if the gene flow is between a bacteria and a plant then it is called as the inter species gene transfer. The gene flow among the same species is also called as the vertical gene flow and the gene flow between different species is called as the horizontal gene flow.

Hurdles to Gene flow: The two main hurdle restricting gene flows are the motor skill of the migrant species and the geographical barriers. The motor skill of the migrant species decides the rate at which the species moves. Higher the movement, greater is the rate of gene flow. The geographical barriers restricting gene flow include natural barriers like mountains and oceans and anthropogenic (by man) barriers like reservoirs, constructions made by humans to form boundaries etc.

Humans and gene flow: The best example of gene flow in humans is cited by the mixed population of the US state. Research has proved the transfer of malaria resistant gene from the migrated population to the native population among whom the gene was absent originally. Humans are not bound to the restriction factors like physiological barriers in gene flow.

Micro organism and gene flow: The gene flow in microorganisms like viruses and bacteria can be either within the same species or between different species because of its ability to infect and multiply in the host cell. An evidence of transfer of gene from a soil bacterium to plants is identified.

Plants and gene flow: The common gene flow pattern in plants is through pollen grains which are carried from one place to plants present in another locality by wind or by insects. Both horizontal and vertical pattern of gene flow occurs in plants. The vertical pattern of gene flow is through hybridization which involves producing a new plant variety with desirable characteristics by crossing two different plants of the same species. Hybrid variety of hibiscus is a good example of vertical pattern of gene flow. Also horizontal gene flow is observed in plants where genes are transferred from bacteria to the plant naturally. Gene flow from a transgenic plant (plant carrying a foreign gene received through gene transfer technology) is a concern due to increased chances of flow of genes with novel characteristics to some other species of plant. Also if a plant is created with a desired characteristic of antibiotic resistance by inserting the desired gene, the chances are that, the gene may be transferred to bacteria infecting the plant and thus the bacteria will develop the characteristics of antibiotic resistance, posing danger to humans.

Gene flow is a natural phenomenon in the process of evolution involving transfer of genes from one population to the other crossing all geographical barriers. Whereas human induced gene transfer uses the technologies like rDNA technology, genetic engineering, molecular cloning which is done with an aim to create a new variant or species beneficial for the human kind. There is no evidence of danger or undesirable effects observed in the natural process of gene flow as it is well balanced and managed by the nature itself.

Nanotechnology can be described as manipulation of particles ranging from 1-100 nm in size to create new materials, devices, structures and systems.

At the beginning of ’80s in the previous century, scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is invented. Imaging the surfaces at the atomic level in water, air and other liquid and gas environments with temperatures ranging from ~zero Kelvin to couple hundred degrees Celsius, enabled scientists not just to learn a lot about the materials they were investigating, but also to manipulate them to create new and improved ones.

How small “nano” actually is? DNA molecule has 2.5 nm in diameter. Human hair is 80,000- 100,000 nm wide. One piece of writing paper is 100,000 nm thick.

How nanotechnology works? Two main principles are applied: “bottom up” and “top down”. “Bottom up” technique relies on molecular recognition and chemical bonding. Material or device is built up by molecules that assemble themselves in growing aggregates. Typical example of molecular recognition in nature is key-lock principle seen in enzyme – substrate biochemical reaction. The way nucleotides in DNA chain are arranged is another example of molecular recognition and self-assembly. “Bottom up” approach can result in more or less complex structure at the end. Specific configuration (with qualities of interest) is created by choosing complementary and mutually attractive components that will be arranged in well defined manner. Self-organization, self-healing and self-replication are the most prominent features of this method finding biggest application in biomimetic materials development.

Top down principle is using reverse strategy. Bulk structures are converted into nano particles by continuous slicing and cutting. Top down method is operating on the surface of the material of interest. Micro-machined gears (used for miniature motors, pumps, electronic circuits) that are final result of the silicon processing are the best examples of this type of nanotechnology. Biggest problem with this method are crystallographic damage, impurities in the sample and structural defects that are all together making manufacturing process very hard.

What are the most popular applications of nanotechnology?

In medicine, it is widely applied in diagnostics, for contrast agent development, for analytic tools and drug delivery vehicles, tissue engineering….

Green nanotechnology is applied to preserve natural environment and enhance sustainable management. Filters and membranes made of nanomaterials are used for air and waste water purification. Nanofiltration is effective for impurities larger than 10nm and ultrafiltration for those ranging from 10-100nm. Magnetic separation (using magnetic nanoparticles) is another way to remove heavy metals from the waste water. Besides being helpful in cleaning the environment, nanotechnology can reduce amount of energy we are currently using. Nice examples are light-emitting diodes and quantum caged atoms that are wasting less energy that conventional light bulbs. Also, nanomaterials deployed by swarm robotics can be used for “clean-up” actions after nuclear accidents.

Novel types of displays with lower energy consumption and high field emission are manufactured using the carbon nanoparticles. Being small in size, electro conductive and energetically efficient, they easily won the battle against the displays with cathode ray tube.

Low weight and size of nanomaterials is highly appreciated in aircraft and spacecraft manufacture: significant fuel saving is accomplished by decreasing equipment weight. Telescopes made of nanomaterials can provide more accurate info about the outer space as well as nanorobots that could physically explore Moon or Mars instead of us.

Food industry is using nanotechnology in production, processing, packaging and for safety evaluation. Gas permeability, heat resistance, mechanical properties of the food could be improved using the nanocomposits. Biosensors are used for safety assessment and quality control. Bioactive food ingredients could be encapsulated using nanotechnology as well. All things used in food industry need to be strictly tested and approved by the FDA before mass production start.

Sun-block creams are one of the examples of nanotech in cosmetic industry. Titanium oxide is agent that provides necessary UV protection.

Some parts of the clothes that we are wearing and a lot of sporting gear is made of nanomaterials. Socks, shoes, baseball bats, tennis balls… - they all have decreased weight, increased duration and resistance + can offer microbial protection...

Applications are endless. It’s estimated that every 3-4 weeks new nanotech product comes to the market. We’ve seen a lot so far, but I'm sure that biggest things are yet to come.

Hi,

I am Ella. I nearly died from toxic mold poisoning (Stachybotrys). Six years ago, in a house that had water damage, the potent neurotoxins from the mold left me bed-ridden and disabled in my functioning. After testing, the doctors found that I also had very high levels of mercury and lead poisoning. I was poisoned by serious neurotoxins and found myself disabled. I had been very healthy before this happened to me. My husband and I had to flee our house that had the toxic mold. We have been trying to recover our once good health now for 6 years.

The powerful neurotoxins had ripped through my system causing multi-system illness. I have been in a long battle to try to regain my health, but it has been very challenging. The neurotic effects have been debilitating. The heart-break has been unspeakable. I have tried so many ways to get well and have been struggling to survive.

A friend gave me a bottle of PCA a month ago. It has been a miracle. I feel that the layers of neurotoxins are being lifted from my brain. It feels like a curse is being lifted from my body and mind. It is truly miraculous. I am just beginning my program with PCA, but already I have more energy, more clarity, am less shaky, am having less vertigo, no more shooting pains through my head, less swelling and less fatigue. I feel that PCA is giving me my life back.

Ella

Animal biotechnology- Assisted Reproductive Technology(ART).

Timing methods
Timing methods aim to affect the sex ratio of the resultant children by having sexual intercourse at specific times as related to ovulation, but have shown no influence on the sex of the baby.[14]
The Shettles method, first formally theorized in the 1960s by Landrum B. Shettles, proposes that sperm containing the X (female) chromosome are more resilient than sperm containing the Y (male) chromosome. The method advocates intercourse two to four days prior to ovulation. By the time ovulation occurs, the cervix should contain a higher concentration of female sperm still capable of fertilization (with most of the male sperm already dead). Intercourse close to ovulation, on the other hand, should increase the chances of conceiving a boy since the concentration of Y sperm is be higher at the height of the menstrual cycle.[15]
The Whelan method is an "intercourse timing" method that advocates the opposite of the Shettles method. The Whelan method suggests intercourse four to six days prior to ovulation to increase likelihood of fertilization by male sperm.
Reference link
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_selecti...son_method

Is that really true?
There is any difference between Male sperm (Y chromosome containing sperm) and Female sperm ( X chromosome containing Sperm) in Speed of migration,Mass,Longevity based on Acidic or Alkaline environment?

Background: Mutagens cause changes (mutations) in the genetic material of cells. A mutation can be the result of different events. Errors made during replication, repair, or recombination can all lead to point or frameshift mutations. Mutations resulting from such errors are spontaneous mutations. A mutation can also result from the action of physical and chemical agents known as mutagens.


Gene, the basic unit of a DNA acts as genetic messenger. Genes are responsible for synthesis of proteins, the important biomolecule responsible for carrying out all cellular function. Any alteration in the gene structure results in the alteration of the genetic message. This change in structure of a gene is called as mutation and mutation can be either spontaneous or induced mutation.

Spontaneous mutation occurs as a result of failure in the process of DNA duplication, which involves steps like DNA helicase induced DNA replication where the DNA strands are separated and action of DNA polymerase in creating copies of replicated DNA strands resulting in formation of two double stranded DNAs. Misfunction of DNA polymerase contributes to mutation. Generally, spontaneous mutations are reversed by the repair mechanism using DNA repair proteins.

Induced mutation occurs as a result of exposure to various external factors like radiation, drugs, virus, pesticides, asbestos, alcohol and smoking. The agents or molecules which are responsible for mutation are called as mutagens. The various factors causing mutation are discussed in detail.

Radiation: There are two types of radiation called as ionizing radiation and non ionizing radiation. The alpha rays, beta rays, gamma rays, X-rays, cosmic rays and a part of UV rays are classified under ionizing radiation. Whereas, the non ionizing radiation includes microwaves, radio waves, infra red light and visible light. Nuclear reactors, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion reactions, radioactive elements, sun and particle accelerators are some of the sources of ionizing radiation.

Ionizing radiations have wide application in the field of medicine and agriculture. X-rays are widely used in the radiology section in hospitals and there are various radiation therapies available. In agriculture radiations are used as a pest control measure, where the male numbers are sterilized by exposing to radiation which restricts the increase in pest population. Also radiations are used in the food industry to sterilize the food and packing materials. Besides these benefits, exposure to ionizing radiation results in gene mutation. The type of radiation, the intensity of radiation and the length of exposure to radiation are the factors to be considered while analyzing mutation due to radiation. Ionizing radiation deforms the structure of the DNA by acting on the bonds through which the bases are connected. Whereas mutation is not observed when exposed to non-ionizing radiation except for some effects on body due to the thermal energy produced.

Virus: Viruses are also potential mutagens. In instances of some acquired viral infections, the virus attaches to the cell, transfer its genetic material into the cell thus altering the original gene, causing mutation. SV40 virus and Human Papilloma virus are examples of viral mutagens. Based on the type of genetic material whether DNA or RNA, a virus carries it is called as DNA virus and RNA virus accordingly. Examples of DNA viral mutagens are Hepatitis B virus and Human herpes virus. Hepatitis C virus is an example of RNA virus which causes cancer in liver by suppressing the activity of the tumor suppressing gene.

Asbestos: The common material used widely is identified as mutagen. Exposure to asbestos mutates p53 gene, thus altering the tumor suppressing role of the gene, causing lung cancer.

Pesticides: The exposure to pesticides, either by handling the pesticide or inhaling the pesticide causes gene mutation. The growth abnormalities observed in the children born to pregnant women exposed to the pesticide ‘Endosulfan’ is a good example. As a result many pesticides were banned by the government which includes Endosulfan and DDT.

Smoking and Drinking: Tobacco and alcohol also plays the role of mutagens when consumed in excess. Mutation caused by chain smoking is similar to that of the exposure to asbestos. Consumption of alcohol in excess causes sperm cell mutation contributing to genetic defects in the offspring.

All the mutations are not inheritable. It depends on the type of cell mutated, either a gene in the somatic cell or the germ cell. The mutation of genes in egg and sperm cell alters the trait of the offspring. Whereas the mutation of a gene due to exposure to UV rays from sun causes skin cancer only in the exposed individual and it is not passed on to next generation. Mutation due to the above discussed factors can be controlled by adopting various preventive measures suitable for the type of mutagen.

The goal of Genome 10K project is to sequence the genome of 10,000 species of vertebrates.

Mass extinction can be described as natural phenomenon when a lot of species are vanished in a short period of time. Since the beginning of the life on Earth, five (if not more) mass extinction periods happened. 98% of ever living species are erased during that time. Reasons were drastic changes in the environment and inability to adapt in a short period of time. Raising or lowering of the sea level, changes in the oxygen level and acidity of sea, climate changes, volcanic eruptions, asteroids that have collided with the Earth and huge amount of dust in the atmosphere were just some of the major reasons why so many species are extinct by now. Those extinctions were happening during the period of ~450 million years. Today, we are facing sixth mass extinction.

Even though climate changes are obvious, they are not only factor that affects life on Earth. Biggest problem and main reason for this extinction is associated with human behavior. Animals are tightly related to their habitats and once destroyed – they don’t have where to go (imagine losing your house in fire without having friends and family to help you get on your feet). It’s estimated that every 2 seconds rain forest sized as a soccer field is demolished. Rain forests are not only essential because of the amount of oxygen they are evaporating but also because of the incredible diversity of living creatures. 40-75% of all species in the world are living in the rain forests. Most of them are highly adapted to a certain environment, and relocation (even if possible) isn't a solution. They are facing near death after losing a habitat and food sources. Other equally big problem is unsustainable hunting (not that I’m approving any kind of animal killing). A lot of animals are threatened due to increased trade of illegal objects made of fur, skin, horns, mustaches…Introduction of novel (invasive) species on the new territory is disturbing natural balance and food chain as they don’t have natural predators and can easily overpopulate. Natural inhabitants are seriously threatened by the new neighbors. Pollution of any kind is one of the biggest threats to the various animals in different environments. Noise pollution with increased boat traffic in the ocean is affecting natural communication between whales. Misinterpreted “signals” could result in collision with ship, for example. All this miseries are result of our reckless behavior.

Luckily, not all people are reckless and ignorant. Some people are doing their best to preserve natural environment and save diversity until it’s too late.

Genome 10k project is one of the brightest examples. Idea of the project is to map 10 000 animal genomes of various vertebrate (roughly one species from each vertebrate genus) to help understand not just the way animals are functioning but also to create a large database that would be more that helpful in all subsequent conservation actions. Once species genome is sequenced - genetic traits that enable survival are known and conservation actions could be addressed in appropriate direction. People included in the project are scientists, zoo employees, people from natural museums and universities and number is growing bigger as more people are getting familiar with the project. If you have specimen that you can donated, you are more than welcome to contribute to the project.

Beside mapping genomes of as much species as possible (especially those that are threatened and nearly extinct), there are some other techniques used to preserve animals or help those endangered survive taught times.

Like in humans, artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization or surrogacy…are some of techniques applied to help animals conceive and increase number of individuals when that’s impossible in natural environment. Sperm and egg can be collected and cryopreserved for future use as well. Breeding in captivity is other option used for species in zoo that have low number of natural occurring animals. Once newborn animals get big and strong enough, they are reintroduced into the wild.

All those techniques can’t erase damage we’ve done, but at least can prevent or at least slow down the extinction rate and maybe help diversity recover some time in the future. In the near future, hopefully.

Biotechnology and microbiology go hand in hand in the characterization and modification of the microorganisms for the welfare of humans and industrial uses. Molecular biology has played a vital role as recombinant DNA technology helps in modifying the genetic information of the microorganisms and design different products for industrial use. The detailed study of the molecular mechanisms within the microorganisms is very essential for approaching the genetic modification of the microorganisms. Proper selection and use of the microorganisms efficiently in the desired process requires complete understanding of the growth, metabolism, interaction with other organisms, etc.

The selection of the microorganisms plays a very important role in industrial microbiology. Most of the microorganisms have not been studied and have remained unexplored, as the microorganisms are present abundantly in the nature and environment. With the study of microbial diversity and ecology, new research studies are being conducted to explore new microorganisms that are beneficial. Various researches are conducted to increase the pool of the microorganisms that are desirable in industrial use with increased mutualistic and protocooperative relationships with higher animals and plants and with better capabilities too.

Genetic engineering has played an important role in the development of microorganisms with desirable properties. The main methods by which the genetic modification of the microorganisms is done are:
i) Mutation: in this process, the genes of the microorganisms are mutated by different methods to produce a culture of better yielding microorganisms, which yield improved products in the same or poorer conditions of growth.

ii) Protoplast fusion, in which the protoplasts of different species are fused to yield hybrids in the microorganisms that usually have asexual reproduction, for e.g. Yeast.

iii) Site directed mutagenesis, in which short fragments of DNA are inserted into the microorganisms to yield better products like proteins, enzymes with desired conditions of action, etc. For e.g. In ethanol production, lactic acid production, etc.

iv) Gene transfer between microorganisms by combinatorial biology, helps in the production of new products as well as recombinant microorganisms with new properties like antibiotic production or better production efficacy.

Modifications of gene expression and natural genetic engineering are some other methods of creation of new microorganisms with different microbial properties for their industrial use.

The preservation of the microorganisms is very essential after their selection and creation. Lyophilization is a process of freeze-drying, which helps in preserving the culture of essential microorganisms in liquid nitrogen, which is complicated, though the process maintains and preserves the viability of the cells. The selection of proper media for the growth of the selected microorganisms is very essential, as only then it will produce the desired products in optimum form. Hence, the process of industrial fermentation has been developed to culture microorganisms with desired qualities in economic way. The nutrients must be present in optimal levels and balance between the different constituents in the media is very necessary for optimum growth and formation of the microbial products. Stirred fermenters, shaking flasks, etc have been used to culture the microorganisms. For the proper growth of the microorganisms, the medium must be properly sterilized to prevent the contamination with other microorganisms, whose by products may cause toxicity to the desired microorganism. Along with the aerobic and anaerobic fermenters, dialysis culture units are also employed to remove the toxinsor waste metabolites, which may be formed during the fermentation or growth of the microorganisms and to add new substrates by diffusion through the dialysis membrane.

The microbial products may be classified into primary metabolites and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites constitute the compounds that are synthesized by the microbes during their active growth phase, which include amino acids, proteins, enzymes, nucleotides, fermentation end products like ethanol, etc. These metabolites find application in the food and textile industries. Secondary metabolites constitute the compounds, which accumulate as waste products after the active growth phase during the nutrient limitation period. The antibiotics and mycotoxins, which are the by-products of many microorganisms, constitute the secondary metabolites. These antibiotics, amino acids, etc have played a very important role in the development of medicines and specialty compounds with medical use. Apart from these, biopolymers, biosurfactants, bioconversions (biocatalysts) are some of the other products of industrial microbiology. Moreover, the use of microbial communites in water, soil, composts, etc has been used largely for the process of environmental maintenance and to improve the agricultural production of crops.

Parkinson's disease is a common disease among the elderly and hence, much research is going on related to it to devise new methods to reduce the suffering of the aged.


As average age of the population has risen considerably owing to the discoveries of new medicines and treatments for many life-threatening diseases. The number of patients suffering from Parkinson's disease (PD) has risen and this has lead to a rise in the cost of treatments and therapeutics. Among the different types of treatments like brain surgeries, etc. gene therapy has evolved to be a better form of treatment for Parkinson's disease in the last few years.

PD is a degenerative disorder, belonging to the movement disorder group. It is a chronic disease of the central nervous system (CNS) and mainly associated with the impairment of the patient’s motor skills and even speech. The uncontrolled movements, tremors, rigidity of muscle, bradykinesia i.e. slowing of the physical movement, etc, characterize the PD, though the symptoms and their severity varies with the individuals. There may be many causes for a patient to suffer from PD. Some reasons like head injury, trauma, drugs, etc may cause PD, while some other idiopathic or unknown causes may result in Parkinson's disease like the presence of some genetic mutations. The main reason for the development of Parkinson's disease is the insufficient secretion of dopamine by the dopaminergic neurons, which leads to the decreased stimulation of motor cortex by the basal ganglia. The conversion of L-dopa by the L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) to dopamine takes place in the nerve terminals, which thereby controls the skeletal muscle motor activity.

Many types of therapeutics have been developed for PD. The administration of levodopa is one such method, which was found to produce much relief in the symptoms of Parkinson's disease in the sufferers of Parkinson's disease without any side effects. However, it does not help in the prevention of degeneration of the neurons. Hence, research for alternative methods of treatment was carried out. The surgical therapy for Parkinson's disease was also developed. In this the cells and tissue implantation was done for replacing the degenerated nerve cells and tissues. However, it was seen that the replacement of neuronal cells could not be considered a possible therapy in all cases, which led to research in the neurotrophic factors (NTF) and gene therapy.

Gene therapy in Parkinson's disease uses two approaches: One is to relieve the motor symptoms by introducing the genes of dopamine synthesizing enzymes into the striatum and thus restoring the production of dopamine and the other is to control the degenerative process of the neurons by the transduction of the cells with the genes encoding neurotrophins. From the elaborate study of the molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of dopamine from L-dopa, it was seen that three enzymes were involved in the process: Tyrosine Hydroxylase, Aromatic L- Amino Acid Decarboxylase (AADC) and GTP Cyclohydrolase I. Hence the transduction of the genes of the three enzymes together were found to have a better effect on the symptoms as well as the production of dopamine, as was studied in rat models. The glial cell derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is one of the most important neurotrophic factors that helps in the survival of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons and thus prevents their degeneration. It remains to be seen if GDNF can regenerate the axons of the nigrostriatal neurons.

The preclinical gene therapy studies in Parkinson's disease are mainly concerned with the selection of a proper vector for gene delivery; the optimum delivery vector for crossing the BBB; and the optimum delivery of gene within the target. The choice of adeno-associated virus, serotype 2 (AAV2) as the most abundantly used vector for gene therapy of Parkinson's disease has been due to the advantages it provides over other vectors like: Its neuron specificity and the prevention of evoking of immunological response against the encoded transgene, its clinical safety, and its large scale production by commercial entities. The other virus vectors used safely for the gene therapy are Lentiviruses (LVs) vectors, Herpes Simplex Virus-1 (HSV-1) vectors, etc for their specific advantages. Other non-viral vectors have also been used such as liposomes as they are devoid of any immunological effect within the body compared to the viral vectors. The introduction of the neurotrophic factors by gene therapy has been studied only in rat models and not in human parkinsonian models. Hence, it needs to be translated effectively for the use of NTF gene therapy in Parkinson's disease patients. Thus, Gene therapy can provide to be a better course of treatment in patients who are in advanced stage of Parkinson's disease and have become non-responsive to medicines, etc. The future of gene therapy for Parkinson's disease is bright once the complete mechanism of the development of Parkinson's disease in majority of the patients is studied extensively.

The advent of Genetic engineering i.e. Recombinant DNA technology to be more specific has made the vaccine technology a revolution.







(ii) The Consistency in the production of vaccines eliminates the possibility of side effects in the administration of the vaccines.



(iii) The vaccines are produced in an unlimited manner, thus their availability is never a issue.

When genome of the species is completely sequenced, gene mapping is used to graphically show where each gene is located on the chromosome. Restriction enzymes are used to slice DNA into fragments that are further separated by electrophoresis. DNA migration on the gel is known as DNA fingerprinting.

We share the same ancestor and genetic differences between human and animals are not as big as we thought they’ll be. Just couple percent of differences in DNA material is what makes us totally different from chimpanzees – our closest cousins. Bonobos are coming right after them. Our last known mutual ancestor lived six million years ago, when divergent evolution began (and modern human start developing). Chimps and bonobos start their separate evolution some million years ago. Clint was the first chimp whose genome was sequenced. He died at age 25 but info provided by his DNA made him immortal. Once chimp genetic map was clearly present, serious investigations on differences between two genomes started.

How different our genomes actually are? Single nucleotide difference exist in 1,2% of chimp’s genome . 3% of differences are result of deletion or insertion of certain parts of DNA and 2,7% of differences are result of gene duplication. DNA variations are result of “parasitic” DNA particles (acting like viruses) that were also inherited from our mutual ancestor. They are making duplicates of themselves that could be inserted in other part of the genome, but they are also responsible for deleting some of our genes and creating some new ones (by inserting and combining parts of functional genes…). All together, 50% of our genome is not associated with proteins vital for our survival which are result of long evolution where DNA material changed both its quality as quantity. Parasitic particles are present in both chimp and human genome, but they are more active in human genome inducing bigger genetic changes.

What makes us human? Mutations are affecting every genome, leading to gene silencing or can result in novel characteristic development. Newly created genes will be passed to the next generation if they are useful for survival. What inevitably separated us from chimpanzees and made us what we are today is associated with changes happened in our brains. Genes associated with brain functioning and development have undergone mutations that were helpful and thus highly appreciated in everyday life. Modified genes start transferring to the next generation and soon differences between humans and chimps became so huge that it was hard to believe that just “few” years of evolution took us away from our mutual ancestor.

Possibly biggest differences between human and chimps can be seen in Y chromosome (~30%). SRY gene is located in the Y chromosome and his expression will trigger embryonic development as male. Y is lot smaller than other sex chromosome (X) which is main obstacle for exchange of genetic material during meiosis (recombination is not possible due to “asymmetry” in their sizes). Genes on the Y are beneficial for male and they are well preserved, but some other parts are lost (not being useful in evolution) leading to shrinking of the chromosome. Chimps lost even bigger parts of their Y chromosomes and some scientists believe that reason for this evolutionary change might lie in their promiscuous behavior. When female is in oestrus, she is mating with more than one male. Selective pressure to produce more sperm and to be successful in fertilizing egg, will eventually led to transferring “superior” sperm genes to the next generation as those characteristic will have more advantage than other genetic characteristics linked to the Y chromosome. Human doesn’t have to compete so heavily for females, so our Y chromosome evolution didn’t happened so rapidly.

Most scientists consider medical related differences between chimps and humans most important for further investigation. We can be more resistant to some diseases that chimps are highly prone to (like sleeping sickness) and vice versa (chimps don’t develop Alzheimer disease for example). What differences in our genetic material is making us resistant or prone to some medical condition? This question is very important because solving the “resistant” genes mysteries would enable us to find a cure for some serious medical conditions that human and chimp populations are facing today.

Breeding of genetically modified animals has been remarkable both quantitatively and qualitatively for humans.

The discovery and the development of rDNA (recombinant DNA) technology and advancement in molecular cloning paved way for the creation of transgenic animals or the genetically modified animals. The transgenic animals are created by the super intelligence of humans by inserting a selected DNA carrying desirable trait into the gene sequence of selected animal, hence the name Transgenic, as they are the carriers of foreign gene.

Transgenic animals are developed by various techniques like embryonic stem cell transfer, microinjecting DNA, gene transfer using selective vectors and artificial liposome method. In embryonic stem cell transfer method, the embryonic stem cells (totipotent in nature) are harvested and maintained under in vitro condition. The desired gene to be transferred is injected into these embryonic stem cells and the genetically altered embryonic stem cell is injected into the blastocyst of the egg of the carrying mother (the selected animal). As a result, the baby of the animal comes with the characteristics of the inserted gene and hence called as the transgenic animal.

The transgenic animal developed by microinjecting DNA involves several steps. At first the desired DNA is injected into the pronucleus of the sperm in a fertilized egg and allowed to fuse and divide. This egg is implanted into the uterus of the selected animal (surrogate mother). The surrogate mother is kept ready by allowing to mate with its sterile counterpart in order to make the uterus very receptive for egg implantation. The resulting new offspring is a transgenic animal. The other methods involve use of vectors in DNA transfer and use of liposome, which carries the desired DNA, allows the DNA to enter the target cell by fusing with the cell. In recent times, the gene targeting and Zinc finger nuclease technology were identified as the advanced methods in creating a transgenic animal.

The list of animals subjected to this technology (development of transgenic animals) includes mice, rat, cow, goat, sheep, spider, rabbit, pig and fish and was found to be successful. The question ‘Why Transgenic Animals?’ is answered by the wide applications and benefits of Transgenic animals in serving human kind. The benefits of transgenic animals are well observed in the fields like pharmaceutical, medicine (drug development), agriculture, industries and in scientific research.

The mystery behind various genetical syndrome, chronic illness in humans is resolved by employing research on transgenic animals. For example, genetic syndrome due to lack of a specific gene or presence of a mutated gene is well understood by inserting the specific gene into animals, creating a transgenic animal and studying the animal. Also transgenic animals lead to the discovery of new drugs representing human diseases. One such example is the discovery of a drug called ATryn, a protein based drug derived from transgenic animal. The mutation or absence of a gene responsible for the synthesis of alfa antithrombin (prevents blood clots) in human results in formation of blood clots which is life threatening and is treated by the drug ATryn obtained from transgenic animals. These animals are also used for studying the drug safety, a step in drug development process. Organ transplantation could be the only life savior method for people suffering from various end stage organ failure. Xeno transplantation (organ transplant from animals to humans) is a success behind breeding transgenic pigs. Also the genetically modified animals diversify the research options in the field of gene therapy, a breakthrough in human medicine.

The breeding of genetically modified animals in animal husbandry is remarkable both quantitatively and qualitatively with the increase in milk production, faster growth rate and resistance to diseases. Coming to the industrial application of genetically modified animals, the research by two Canadian scientists in 2001 is a classic example. In their research, they isolated desired gene from a specific spider species and inserted it into a goat with a goal to manufacture silk. As a result thin silk strands were derived from the body of the transgenic goat. The application of rDNA technology in creating genetically engineered microorganisms poses wide industrial application.

Besides all the advantages and applications of transgenic animals, the ethics behind using another life form, altering its gene sequence and changing its natural trait just for the beneficial of human race is highly questionable.

The University of Nebraska is looking for a new director of its Bioprocess Development Facility (BPDF).

The BPDF is a leading bioprocess
research, development and cGMP
manufacturing facility focused on
vaccines and biotherapeutics derived
from recombinant yeast and bacterial
expression systems. Projects range
from process research, development,
and cGMP manufacturing of vaccines against biological warfare agents, to assisting small and large
biopharma companies in bringing biotherapeutics to clinical trials.

The cGMP pilot plant accommodates both
recombinant bacteria and yeast expression
systems at the 150 L-scale (working volume).
Designed and built by AES CleanTechnology
(clean rooms) and BioKinetics (process piping),
the facility has state-of-the-art cGMP utilities,
an established QA department, environmental
monitoring, and a GLP compliant QC
laboratory.

The Director is expected to manage an externally funded program that includes basic and applied
research, process development, analytical methods development and qualification, quality assurance and
quality control units, and cGMP production of recombinant proteins. The director should have experience
in microbial expression systems, scale-up of upstream and downstream bioprocessing, and managing
cGMP processes. Industrial experience is preferred but not required. A doctoral degree in Chemical and
Biomolecular Engineering or a closely related field is required. Must meet qualifications for appointment
as a tenured professor.