Why do people get older? Why do they die? Is there life without aging process? These and similar questions have fascinated scientists for centuries, and now researchers from Germany's Kiel accidentally came very close to the answers to these questions, reports Science Daily portal. Specifically, studying the longevity of polyp hydra, scientists are completely unexpectedly found a link with aging in humans.
Research conducted by joint efforts of scientists from the University of Kiel and the University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein (UKSH) was published in the journal Proceedings of The National Academy of Science (PNAS).

Hydra Polyp Is Immortal

This tiny polyp lives in deep water and, according to current knowledge, it shows no signs of aging, which makes him literally immortal. Despite the expectations, behind the immortal life of this organism is actually pretty simple biological explanation - hydra are asexual organisms that reproduce by the process of "budding". It is a relatively simple process in which an individual develops so called buds that remain attached to the mother until the moment when they become quite mature. Being asexual, buds are actually clones of mother, so, once separated they transfer always the same genetic material. The basic assumption of this form of reproduction is that each polyp contains stem cells capable of virtually unlimited proliferation. Without these cells, these organisms would no longer be able to breed. Because of its longevity, Hydra was the subject of many studies during recent years, but this is the first time that an association was found between polyps immortality and aging in humans.

When people get older, an increasing number of stem cells lose their ability to replicate, and thus the ability to produce new cells. When a specific tissue is old enough, it can not be regenerated, which is the main reason, for example, for muscle atrophy in the elderly. Also, older people often feel weakness because the aging process affects their heart muscles. If in some way, we had an impact on slowing down these side effects of aging, people would be able to feel better physically much longer than is now common. The study of tissues in organisms that are full of active stem cells during entire life, may provide us with a better insight into the aging of stem cells in general. Of course, the ultimate goal of this type of research is to understand the aging process in order to change it in some way.

FOXO Genes

"To our great surprise, the search for genes that enable hydra to be immortal has brought us to the so-called FOXO genes," says Anna-Maree Bohm, a student in the doctoral study and co-author of the article in which the results of research are presented. FOXO gene exists in all animals and humans, and scientists noticed it long ago. However, until now there was nothing known about why older people have less stem cells that are, in addition, less active, which biochemical mechanisms are associated with this process, and what role does FOXO gene have in aging process. In order to find this gene which is clearly important, the researchers extracted stem cells from hydra and mapped all of their genes.

The research team from University in Kiel studied the FOXO gene in several different genetically modified polyps - hydra with normal FOXO gene, with inactive FOXO gene, and with enhanced FOXO gene. Based on several experiments, the scientists were able to prove that organisms without FOXO genes have much less stem cells than the other organisms. Interestingly, drastic changes in the immune system were observed in these organisms. "Drastic changes are similar to those of hydra, and are often observed in the elderly," explains Philip Rosenstiel from the Institute for Clinical Molecular Biology, UKSH, who, along with his team of experts, participated in a particular study.

"Our research team has shown that there is a direct link between FOXO genes and the aging process. FOXO gene is especially active in people who have suffered over one hundred years old and it was our only additional evidence that this gene plays an important role in the aging process, not only hydrated, but also in people, "says Thomas with Bosch the Institute for Zoology at the University of Kiel, senior author of the study.

However, currently there is no way to check this hypothesis indeed, since that would require such an undertaking, as genetic manipulations with people, the limit that science has still not exceed. Nevertheless, Bosch points out that the results of this research are a big step forward in understanding how and why people get older. Since further studies in humans are not possible, scientists will in the near future be devoted to the study of ways in which FOXO gene acts by studying the hydra polyps.

Chinese scientists have developed a new technique by which the cells from urine are reprogrammed to become immature brain cells that can form several types of functional neurons and glial cells. This technique, published in the journal Nature Method, could become particularly useful for the study of cellular mechanisms in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. Also, using "reprogrammed" cells from urine, the new drugs could be tested for two of the above, and many other diseases.

Viral Vectors Cause Harmful Mutations

Stem cells could significantly help in the treatment of various serious diseases, but their collection from human embryos is almost inextricable ethical dilemma. Fortunately, science is now so advanced that it is possible to take common body cells from adults and to make stem-like cells out of them. After that, from those new stem cells, all the other types of body cells could be derived. During this process, genetically modified viruses are commonly used to deliver genes that control the cell nucleus and are inserted into the chromosomes. After that, the genes that make cells pluripotent or reprogrammed are activated, making the stem cell from which it is now possible to make any type cell.

Let’s simplify this process by an example. Four years ago, U.S. scientists took skin cells of 82-year old patient who suffered from severe sclerosis. With the help of genetically modified viruses the cells were then reprogrammed into neurons responsible for motor processes. So, the cells that scientists "created" from simulated stem cells could help them in the understanding and treatment of many diseases. Being said that the patient receives his own cells, the risk of a reaction of the immune system is eliminated, and therefore, doctors are hoping that this approach will lead to success in future cell transplantation therapies. However, although at first glance it does not seem like it, the whole procedure contains some significant drawbacks. For example, it appears that the process of reprogramming cells destabilize the genome and causes various mutations. If you are trying to cure the patient with stem cells that will cause harmful mutations in its genome, then the whole process is ultimately useless.

The New Method

Last year, Dr. Pei Duanying from the Chinese Academy of Sciences with the group of co-workers published a research paper in which they presented a pretty interesting research on human urine. Specifically, Pei and his colleagues concluded that urine contains cells like skin cells (which came in the urine from the renal tubules) that can be successfully reprogrammed into neurons, glial cells, liver cells and heart muscle cells. After a year of intensive work, Chinese scientists have mastered the process and made it faster, more efficient and more reliable.

In the latest study, the cells were isolated from urine samples of three donors (donors were 10, 25 and 37 years old) and were converted into stem cells, from which neurons were developed. After that, the reprogrammed cells were grown in petri dishes, and developed in mature neurons that can generate nerve impulses. From the stem cells, they have also made oligodendrocytes and astrocytes, the two types of glial cells, which are found in the human brain. Once they raised the desired cells, neurons and astrocytes were transplanted into the brains of newborn rats, and a month later they noticed that their grown cells are still alive in the bodies of animals. While this is in itself quite a success, the researchers emphasize that the actual critical period is yet to come - it is necessary to see how long this cells can survive and, in particular, could they be incorporated into the neural network and become fully functional.

This is not the first time that one cell type was converted to another, and that the cells had not previously been brought into pluripotent stage. Two years ago, scientists at Stanford University directly transformed connective tissue cells into neurons in mice. However, this technique still has several important advantages compared to those used by the Stanford team.

Instead of using a virus as a vector for reprogrammed genes, Chinese researchers used a tiny piece of bacterial DNA that can replicate itself. This approach not only speeds up the whole process, but also eliminates the need to reprogram the genes integrated into the chromosome. This process has often caused genetic mutations, and that way made the whole idea of reprogramming cells unusable. However, it is still not clear whether the reprogrammed cells using bacterial DNA are less prone to mutations and what the real benefits of this approach are.

Of the remaining benefits of this new approach we should emphasize the fact that it makes the whole procedure of the creation of new cells much easier and much less invasive. This simply stems from the fact that cell samples now can be derived from urine and not from blood or biopsy. The next step for researchers is to create neuronal cells from urine collected from patients with Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and other neurodegenerative diseases. Since the whole approach was developed precisely in order to treat these conditions, it is crucial to find out whether and how this non-viral way of reprogramming cells affects the incidence of harmful mutations in the genome of the patient.

Determining Stoichiometric Coefficients
of Metabolites in Glucose Fermentation
Sergey P. Klykov and Vladimir V. Kurakov
03/01/2013
http://www.bioprocessintl.com/multimedia...87894a.pdf

Our proposed structured deterministic model describes the kinetics of biomass growth. Metabolism is not worse than other models, but rather provides a simpler mathematical approach. Our model allows for analyzing the chemical stoichiometry of biological processes. Such analysis provides for the economic calculation of the industrial processes of cell culture and a real forecast of the parameters.

Also see:
http://www.biotechnologyforums.com/thread-1809.html

Scientists are trying to inspire give the humanity the gift of immortality. In the latest attempt to eradicate death, the researchers injected the healthy mice with dose of telomerase, an enzyme that our chromosomes (and therefore our cells and bodies) maintains "young". With this therapy, scientists were able to extend the life of mice by 24%, and best of all is that the therapy produced absolutely no unwanted side effects. At least not yet.

Shortening of Telomeres is Responsible for Aging

As man gets older, the cells are getting older too. Dying cells are replaced by new ones by cell division, but this process is not without side effects. After each cell division, DNA molecules are shortened at the end of chromosomes (regions called telomeres). At one point, when the telomeres are shortened to a certain extent, this piece of DNA signals the cell that it is time to stop further division. Cessation of cell division prevents the formation of new tissue, and therefore, this process leads to the destruction of tissues build of those cells. As a result, these tissues are rapidly deteriorated and, to cut a long story, this process seems to be the reason people do not live forever. But maybe not for long.

The Molecular Cocktail

Scientists claim that they have found a molecular cocktail that, at least in mice, act like an elixir of youth. The scientists injected the telomerase gene in mice, which has slowed down the aging process by lengthening the telomeres and thus allowed cells to divide much longer time than it would be in a normal state. Researchers injected the molecular cocktail to the one-year mouse (in the mouse world, this is considered an adult) and two-year mouse (briefly - an old man). Lifetime of one-year mouse, by this therapy is prolonged by 24%, while the percentage of two-year mouse was slightly lower - 13%. But besides they lived longer, the mice benefited from this therapy in many other ways. It seems that the therapy had a very positive effect on a variety of conditions that are commonly associated with aging, including insulin sensitivity, osteoporosis and physical coordination.

It should also be noted that the second group of mice was injected with inactive form of telomerase, which had no effect on lifetime extension. This confirms that it is the enzymatic activity that has resulted in the extension of telomeres crucial to find an elixir of youth. The study (published in the journal EMBO Molecular Medicine) was led by the Spanish scientist Maria Blasco from the Spanish National Institute for Cancer Research.

The Use of Viruses as Gene Vectors

This therapy included the replacement of the particular gene in the viruses with the gene for telomerase. This had several advantages. First, viruses are great way to enter the body and they infect a large number of cells. Insertion of telomerase in a small number of cells would probably not have any significant effect on prolonging the life of "infected" body. Second, in this way, the gene remains active for years and, the last, the DNA from the virus did not interfere with DNA from mouse cells. In previous attempts with this type of therapy, there was a considerable risk that the virus infected cells will turn into tumors. For example, in one of the studies, this therapy has caused leukemia in two of nine mice.

The very idea of life extension using telomerase is not new. Scientists have already added telomerase to cultured human cells allowing thus at least 20 new divisions and significantly extent of their lifespans. Mice, which were artificially enabled to produce telomerase, lived 40% longer, and in these mice were observed greater levels of glucose tolerance, better coordination, and less tendency to other infections compared with normal mice. Still, the same genetic modification in humans is not yet a realistic option.

The Answer Is Maybe Near

Aging is a very complicated process that is not yet fully understood. It includes so many factors that it is quite likely that today we are not even aware of the existence of certain important characteristics of the aging process. But if the key to our aging (and of course, death) is just telomere shortening, then the answer is very near, according to recent, above mentioned findings. In short, the point is that we always have enough time to find new drugs for, as de Grey said, "curing the disease called death." If we reach the destination of this exciting journey, it might have been the last step toward immortality.

Pain during vaccination and fear of needles could completely disappear in the near future, writes MIT news.

Scientists at MIT have constructed a device by which the content of the vaccine is injected under the skin of the patient without the use of hypodermic needles. Simply put, it is a device that injects contents of vaccines by “jet" drive, without causing any pain. The advantage of this invention is that it can inject different amounts of vaccine at different depths.

Less Accidental Injuries

Scientists say the invention, along with many other benefits, can help prevent accidental injuries that occur daily handling with needles. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that hospital staff accidentally injures with needles of various vaccines even 385 000 times a year. Of course, in most cases it is only a tiny prick, but with this large number of accidental puncture there is a significant risk of transmission of certain serious diseases. From a multitude of other benefits should be noted that giving the vaccine without needles can significantly ease the life of people that have to be injected daily with medications such as insulin.

"If you have a fear of needles or must daily inject a drug, there is a good chance that you will sometimes avoid the prescribed treatment because of fear or discomfort," says Catherine Hogan, a scientist at MIT's Department of Mechanical Engineering and a member of the team that constructed this device. "We believe that this invention has an extraordinary potential in helping patients in overcoming phobias associated with medical needles," says Hogan.

Attempts To Replace The Needle

In the past few decades, scientists have tried various alternatives to hypodermic needles. Nicotine patches, for example, release slowly the drug, which then enters the body through the skin. But the problem with this solution is that from the patch only molecules that are sufficiently small may be released, as they have to be able to pass through tiny holes in the skin (pores). By replacing the hypodermic needle with patch, the range of drugs that patients can receive is therefore significantly limited.

More recently, in medicine are increasingly being used "big" drugs based on proteins that scientists had to find more efficient ways to bring in patients organisms. One of these methods is the injection of jet injection, that is able to inject painlessly various types of drugs at high speeds under the skin. Although in today's market there are several similar devices, Hogan points out that each of them has some significant drawbacks.

The Entry Under The Skin

MIT team led by Professor Ian Hunter, unlike all the previous cases, constructed the jet injection which was able to inject different doses of drugs at different depths and all this in a very reliable manner. The basis of the device is a mechanism called Lorentz-force actuator - a small but extremely strong magnet surrounded by a coil of wire that is connected to the piston within the ampule filled with medicine. When the current is released through the device, it activates a magnetic field which then generates a force that ejects the drug through the nozzle out under very high pressure and at very high speed (the speed of drug ejection is close to the speed of sound). The nozzle through which the drug is "fired out" is as wide as the proboscis by which mosquito stings their victims.

The speed of injection of the drug can be controlled by the amount of current that is passed through the device. The injection process is usually carried out in two phases. In the first stage (high pressure phase), the device ejects the drug under extremely high pressure. This is necessary in order to inject the drug under the skin and in order to reach the desired depth. In the second stage (low pressure phase) in which the pressure is significantly lower, the drug will be expelled in a slow stream to be absorbed by surrounding tissues properly.
When testing the device, the researchers noticed that the quantity and depth of drug injection significantly depends on the skin type on which the device is used.

"If, for example, using this device we wish to vaccinate a child, it would be much less pressure than when they tried to inject the drug under adult skin," says Hogan, and continues, "we can easily control the pressure at which the drug is injected, and that's one of the biggest advantages of this device. "

BubR1 Protein:

Incredible 10-year journey, which had started by the discovery of laboratory raised mouse that get old fast, led scientists to trace the protein that potentially protects animals from cancer and other effects of aging. Although there are still many uncertainties related to that protein called BubR1, there are evidences that the so called protective chromosomes can improve health.

Aneuploidy Causes Cancer?

Jan van Deursen, a biologist from Mayo Clinic in Rochester (Minnesota), who conducts research on tumors, and his colleagues were originally interested in studying the common features of different tumors that are called aneuploidy tumors. Aneuploid cells have an excess or deficiency of chromosomes. Most tumor cells fall under this category, but it remains unclear whether aneuploidy causes cancer indeed.

The Experiment

Van Deursen, along with former student Darren Baker, using genetic modification of mice decreased the production of BubR1 protein that helps cells with chromosome separation after division. After reduction of BubR1 chromosomes can not be properly separated into identical daughter cells, which is why some of the new stations do not have the correct number of chromosomes. Van Deursen, Baker and colleagues have questioned whether tumors will develop in these mice.
To the great surprise, instead of mice full of tumor cells, they have got animals in which the aging process was significantly accelerated. "These mice are obviously strongly different from normal mice," said Baker, who is currently engaged in the biology of aging at the Mayo Clinic. Last year, they found that these mice may help you live longer and healthier by removing old cells, and those cells whose genetic markers indicate aging.

BubR1 gene mutations are extremely rare in humans. This syndrome is characterized by a wide range of aneuploidy, premature aging and increased risk of breast cancer. It seems that the low amount of BubR1 protein is very harmful.

On the other hand, excessive amount of the same protein has a positive effect on health. In the study published in the journal Nature Cell Biology biologists argue that mice, in which the level of BubR1 is highly increased using genetic engineering, are less prone to the development of tumor cells. For example, when normal mice were exhibited to a chemical that causes tumors in the lung and skin, all of them got a cancer. However, only 33% of mice in which extremely high levels of BubR1 are found, developed a cancer under the same conditions. They have found that in these mice the fatal forms of cancer occurred about two years later than normal, and only 15% of the genetically modified mice had died of cancer, compared with 40% of normal.

Mice Run Like Olympians

At the same time, the animals with markedly increased levels of BubR1 lived on average 15% longer than the control group, and they looked like real Olympians on a treadmill, running approximately twice as much as normal mice (200 meters compared to 100 meters). Baker, Van Deursen and colleagues therefore hypothesized that BubR1 does not affect the prolongation of life only by reducing the risk of cancer, and that this hypothesis needs to be checked.

It is of great importance to know why the disorganization of chromosomes can accelerate aging, says Dai Wei, a cell biologist at the University Langone Medical Center in New York. Although aneuploidy seems harmful, studies does not give that kind of results of its effect on animals. "We found that a low level of aneuploidy, such as the one in Van Seurden’s healthy mice, leads to a large number of tumor cells, and not to lower," says Cristina Montagna, molecular geneticist at the Albert Einstein School of Medicine in the Bronx. She and her colleague Jan Vijg collaborate with Van Deursen in study of brain BubR1 in mice. A possible explanation of their findings is that very low as well as very high aneuploidy protect of tumors because the highly aneuploid cells are so damaged that they don’t have the ability of quick division.

Still, there is hope that Van Deursen and colleagues will find a new drug that will slow aging. "We certainly have not found adverse effects of excess amount of BubR1 protein," said Paul Hasty, who studies aging and recovery of DNA at the Center for Health Sciences at the University of Texas. He added that it is necessary to reveal the mechanisms by which BubR1 achieves the desired effect, but this could be a first step in discovering the treatments that could delay aging and possibly prevent the development of cancer.

Biodiesel is a liquid fuel produced from vegetable oil or used oil and grease. Most transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually require high energy density, as occurs in liquids and solids. Biodiesel burns very purely and resembles a standard diesel. It is derived from the oil that is produced from sunflower, soybean or rapeseed oil using methanol and a catalyst. Chemically, it is the mixture of methyl esters of fatty acids. This fuel is a renewable resource because It regenerates at the same speed as being spent. This fuel has a bit lower energy content, but it contains a higher percentage of oxygen which helps it to combust better.

Conventional diesel engines use fuel with 20 percent biodiesel without difficulty, and many of the new engines can also use pure biodiesel. Biofuels do not require the production of a new car or a new car engine, they already have a huge advantage over hydrogen technology which is still at the beginning of the development. In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters.

This compatibility with existing engines has prompted many countries to turn to biofuels, confident that they will thus be able to reduce the cost of fossil fuels. The European Union has set itself the goal to use 6 percent of biodiesel by 2010, which will mean a five-fold increase in growing plants that produce ethanol.

The Advantages of Biodiesel Compared to Diesel

Technical aspects:
• Provides better ignition and lubricity which means greater engine efficiency and duration
• Safer handling and storage: flash point of about 150 ° C - fossil diesel about 70 ° C
• Requires no modifications to the engines
• It is not necessary to change transport and storage systems in order to use biodiesel
Ecological aspects:
• Reduced emissions of greenhouse gases, particulates and aromatics: CO2, CO, SO2, NO2, soot, benzene, toluene
• Nontoxic
• Biodegradable
Energetic aspects:
• Renewable basic raw materials and the use of already used cooking oils and fats
• Reduces the need to import oil and the risk of supply
Economic aspects:
At the macroeconomic level, the development of biodiesel production affects the following indicators:
• Employment
• The increase in industrial production
• Additionally increasing funds to agriculture
• Contribution to the economic development of rural areas
• The increase in foreign exchange reserves
• Reducing energy parameters depending on external factors.

Why Biodiesel?

• The need for increased security in the supply of liquid fuel for the transport sector and agriculture using renewable sources;
• The need to be used in diesel engines that don’t pollute the environment and at the same time does not require modifications to the engine and can be blended with fossil diesel;
• Provides users with reliable fuel at a lower price.
• Reduced emissions (especially CO2) that participate in greenhouse gas emissions and their impact on global climate;
• By ratifying the Kyoto Protocol, the EU committed itself to reduce total emissions by 8% by 2012 compared with the level of the year 1990
• EU member states must ensure that the minimum proportion of biodiesel and other renewable fuels is in its markets;
Reference value of the goals set according to Directive 2003/30/EC (calculated based on the total energy content of gasoline and diesel fuel): 2% by 31st December 2005, 5.75% by 31st December 2010, and the European Commission determines further progress.

Selling Equipment for Biodiesel

The innovation is based on a flexible and modular mobile transesterification technology, which allows the conversion of restaurant waste oils and fats to get quality refined oils and fats according to standard EN 14214. Built-in modular units are also necessary for evaporation and distillation of methanol, which enables effective and maximum use of unreacted methanol.

Second-generation biofuels are produced from sustainable feedstock. Sustainability of a feedstock is defined, among others, by availability of the feedstock, and impact on biodiversity and land use. Many second-generation biofuels are under development such as Cellulosic ethanol, Algae fuel, biohydrogen, biomethanol, DMF, BioDME, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, biohydrogen diesel, mixed alcohols and wood diesel.

The problem of energy deficiency is raising in all industrial and economical fields, ant threatens to impact industrial, science and technology progress. Biodiesel is considered a very advanced technology achievement which has the potential to change human life in the sense of overcoming the world energy problem.

Although it seems quite impossible at a first glance, people in the future will walk just like insects and jellyfish will read the barcode. The swimmers will wear the costumes modeled on shark skin, and planes will mimic birds. It is going to be the era of useful technology tools developed on the models taken from living nature.

Regardless of the position, walking on the ceiling, a tree or a leaf, insects easily defy gravity and they don’t care whether they move through the rough, smooth, wet or dry surfaces. Insects have inspired researchers at the University of Kiel to invent the duct tape that can withstand the weight of a grown man. Since there is no glue, even after thousand removals it does not lose its adhesive properties.

Using genetic engineering, scientists have created artificial equivalents of millions of tiny hairs that insects have on their tiny legs. Because there are so many of them, insects easily grip and have an "intimate" contact with any surface, and the invented duct tapes are effective and even under the water, and leave no sticky trail. Tapes will not be expensive, and it will be commonly used in everyday life, robotics, and for building spaceships.

The synergy of technology and nature, which no longer play in opposite teams, is the new trend among scholars, and a new discipline, biomimicry, or bioinspiration uses nanotechnology to mimic efficient and sustainable solutions from nature. Therefore, the engineers at the University of York in England, mimicking the horns of a deer in the fight, have made the material that is both extremely rigid and very sturdy, and will in the future be used to make durable materials. Indian snail shell is also extremely durable, and there are already uniforms for soldiers and armored vehicles made using that principle.

Medusa Gives Laser Light

Protein that mimics the light was first discovered in 1961 in the luminous jellyfish, and scientists can now get laser light from living cells, which is highly effective for all forms of light therapy in medicine. Imitation of laser light could improve microscopes, and scanners at the box office or DVD players.

Bionic Car Mimics Goldfish

Mercedes engineers have made a concept car that mimics the form of tropical fish. Due to its advanced aerodynamics the car consumes 20 percent less fuel, and spends three liters to go 100 km.

Nice and Clean in a Dirty Pond

The lotus flower manages to live in dirty water and to nothing lose from its purity. It floats on the water regardless of the heavy rain that cannot soak it. Its leaf is covered with tiny protrusions that make the water to gather in droplets and on that way. The lotus effect has the potential to be applied to all types of cleaning, from shoes to cars.

Windmills Are Working 20 Percent Better Because of Whales

Another interesting application of biomimicry, or imitation of nature was successfully completed when the scientists investigated the behavior of humpback whales.

These huge animals are known for their songs which they spread through the depths of the ocean, but also smooth and agile behavior which allows them to easily move their heavier than 35 tons body. The secret is in the shape of their humpbacks and fin folds that up to 30 percent better utilize power stroke. This knowledge engineers have used to make highly efficient hydraulic turbines, windmills, irrigation pumps, huge fans and propellers. Drawing on the experience of humpback whales, newly designed turbines produce twenty percent more renewable energy.

Cold Air Under The African Sun

Millions of termites fried in the hotness under the African sun, in termite mounds have made cooling system with corridors and chimneys. For the architects in Zimbabwe, it was the inspiration to make a building designed to always maintain the ideal temperature naturally.

Swimsuit Modeled on Shark

The Olympic pool each thousandth of a second counts, and sporty swimsuit inspired by a shark makes a decisive advantage to competitors.

Airplane With Wings Modeled on Birds Is Flying Easier

Mimicking birds and fish, scientists from Penn State University in the United States invented the special airplane with wings that can change shape and position depending on the speed and duration of flight. Similarly like the wings of birds, artificial wings save energy and fuel significantly, and enable faster flight.

Rats with spinal cord injury and severe paralysis are now walking (and running) thanks to researchers at the Federal Polytechnic School of Lausanne (EPFL). The findings published in June 2012 in the Science journal, show that interrupted spinal cord can regain its function when it awakens its own intelligence and ability to regenerate. The research, which began five years ago at the University of Zurich, indicated profound changes in our understanding of the central nervous system. It is not yet clear whether similar techniques and rehabilitation would work in humans, but there is nerve growth that suggests new methods for treating paralysis.

Neurorehabilitation

"After a few weeks of neurorehabilitation with a combination of robotic armor and electrochemical stimulation, our rats not only moved their legs, but also ran, climbed the stairs and avoided obstacles”, said Courtin, who holds the Chair of recovery of the spinal cord at the EPFL.

Neuroplasticity

It is well known that the brain and spinal cord can adapt and recover from moderate injuries, and this is a quality known as neuroplasticity. So far, the spinal cord showed so little neuroplasticity following severe injuries from which the recovery was impossible. Courtin’s research shows that, under certain conditions, plasticity and recovery can occur even in these difficult cases, but only if the dormant spinal cord in the spine first wakes up.

Waking Up The Spinal Cord

To do this, Courtine and his team injected in the laboratory rat a chemical solution of monoamine agonists. These chemicals trigger responses of the cells by binding to specific receptors for dopamine, adrenaline and serotonin, which are located on neuron surface in the spinal cord. This cocktail of drugs replaces the neurotransmitters in healthy subjects, release pathways in the brainstem and activates stimulation of neurons preparing them for coordination of the movement of the lower parts of the body when the time is right.

Five to ten minutes after the injection, the researchers electrically stimulated the spinal cord with electrodes implanted in the outermost layer of the channel, which is called the epidural space. "This way localized continuous epidural stimulation sends electrical signals through the nerve fibers to chemically excited neurons that control the movement of the legs. All that remains is to move the leg, "explains Rubia van den Brand, co-author of the research.

The article in 2009. in the journal Nature Neuroscience, Courtine reported that stimulated spinal cord of rats - physically isolated from the brain - has developed very surprisingly. It started by assignments of sliding leg movements, allowing the earlier paralyzed rats to walk, though not by their own will. These experiments have revealed that the scroll wheel has created sensory feedback that initiated walking. "The back brain" then took over further walking and basic walking happened with no information received from rat’s actual brain. It was a surprise for researchers which led them to believe that animals need a very weak signal from the brain to run the limbs of their own accord.

To test this theory, Courtine replaced the scroll wheel with a robotic device that adhered to the body, which was turned on only when the rat lost his balance, giving the impression that he is healthy and able-bodied spine. This has encouraged the rats themselves to go for chocolate as a reward waiting at the other end of the platform. "They concluded that exercising will encourage movement and speed-up the regeneration of nerve fibers four times. That statement shows that nerve cells, opposite to the previous statements has a great neuroplasticity and regeneration potential.

Courtine called the growth of fibers "new ontogenesis," which is a kind of duplication of child growth phase. Researchers have found that newly formed fibers bypassed the original lesion in the spinal cord and thus allowed the signals from the brain to reach electrochemically awakened spine. The signal was strong enough to start moving on the field, and without the car. This means that the rats began to walk alone, by their own will toward the prize at the end of tracks, fully supporting its own weight on its hind legs.

"This is the world cup of neurorehabilitation," said Courtine. "Our rats have become athletes even though, only a few weeks ago, they were completely paralyzed. I'm talking about complete recovery of voluntary movements. "

In principle, a radical reaction of the rat spinal cord in this type of treatment gives us the reason to believe that the persons with spinal cord injury will soon have some new options for treatment. Courtine is optimistic that the new phase of experimentation on humans will begin within a year or two at The Spinal Cord Injury Center at the Balgrist University Hospital in Zurich.

Hi everyone,
I run a community of rh negative people and the claim that rh negative blood cannot be cloned keeps popping up. I would like to know from some of you if
1) this is correct
and
2) why.

Best,

Mike Dammann

Creation of chain DNA in laboratories leads to the creation of artificial organisms. Scientists are now able to make a DNA chains "on demand", such as they need. There are numerous reviews on this revolutionary scientific discovery, because many have fear of the outcome. Like the experts say: "you should not be playing God."

After 15 year-work, a team of U.S. researchers has developed the first auto reproductive living cell, which is controlled by a synthetic genome. Critics warn of the risk of developing artificial organisms. "It is a cell that is derived from fully synthetic chromosome, made of four bottles of chemicals that make up DNA parts," said Craig Venter, chief researcher at the Institute Jay Craig. Venter told reporters that the experiment began with a live cell, which is then processed using a synthesized genome, after which the cells pass through a "million steps of replication." The researchers first constructed a kind of "genetic software" bacteria, which were then transplanted into the cell, and eventually frozen. Otherwise, Venter said that two years ago, managed to make sensitization of bacterial genome, but had not been able to transplant it into a cell.

Except synthesizing the genome (the complete hereditary basis of an organism) by fusing the chromosomes which contain the DNA of the organism, the genome researchers added "watermarks" to distinguish them from natural. These tags, in fact, contain the names of all 46 authors and researchers who worked on the project, as well as the official website, so that anyone who succeed to perform decoding can send e-mail to the team. In addition, three quotes of Irish writer James Joyce are included. One of them sounds as follows: "To live, to be mistaken, to win, to create life out of life." With good reason, apparently. Venter added that "this is the first time that a synthetic DNA is in full control of a single cell." That is why he will continue to work on the construction of the bacteria to be able to perform useful functions.

Algae from glass bottles AGAINST "greenhouse"

This method could be used in the manufacture of medicines, vaccines and biofuel, the new, so-called "clean energy" for the refinery. It also, could enable the production of algae for absorption and clearance of carbon dioxide, the most dangerous environmental pollutant, according to the report published in the journal "Science." "We are on course to develop a very powerful apparatus in an attempt to control biological processes," said Craig Venter, researcher who was involved in mapping the human genome in the last 10 years. During that research, he determined the location of each human gene and its specific structure and function.

Opening Pandora's Box

Critics warn that Venter and his colleagues that way entered in the danger zone, because "they have created artificial organisms that have not been fully studied and understood." Venter stood in front of the public, and, in his defense, he said that he "wasn’t trying to play God." "It's a classic charge that critics point when scientists discover something new in medicine or biology. Man has always lived in attempt to control nature. Didn’t that cause creating the domestic animals," said the researcher. He believes that this is not an act of opening a Pandora's box, but on the contrary - "This is a step, a small step forward in realizing and understanding the nature and functioning of life, and perhaps, in discovering ways to control microbial world, to improve people's lives."

This experiment raised many ethical questions. Pat Mooney, director of ETC Group in Canada, said that the creation of artificial cells "is not SOS shop for all our troubles in the society. It is more likely that this will create a series of new problems." Among them, according to the possibility of abuse, primarily belong weapons for bioterrorism. Rejecting the possibility, Winter concluded that "technology and the cells are not for sale”.

Strive to use technology in order to improve the quality of human life, as well as to improve knowledge and understanding of cellular life is spreading with great speed. Although there are different opinions whether this kind of technology should be applied, the progress of science seems unstoppable. We can only imagine the incredible advantages that future generations are going to experience thanks to biotechnology achievements.

First step towards the development of tiny devices that produce electricity while performing everyday tasks is new approach. Imagine that you charge your cell phone while walking, thanks to the power generator thin like paper embedded in your shoe. This futuristic scenario is now a little closer to reality. Scientists from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab), developed a way to produce electricity using harmless viruses that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Researchers tested their methodology of creating a generator that produces enough electricity to run small liquid-crystal displays. It activates by touching the electrode size of a postage stamp. The electrode is coated with a layer of the viruses created specifically for this purpose. Viruses convert force of the touch into the electrical discharge.

Piezoelectricity

This is the first power generator that uses piezoelectric properties of biological materials. Piezoelectricity is the accumulation of charge in a solid material as a response to mechanical stress.

This process can lead to the production of small devices that generate electrical energy from the vibrations that occur when performing everyday tasks such as closing doors or climbing stairs. It also indicates the way to make microelectronic devices more easily. This is possible because the viruses organize themselves in a film that allows the operation of this generator. This is great advantage of manipulation with viruses.

"Further research is needed, but our work is a promising first step towards the development of personal generators for electricity, starters for use in nano-devices and other devices based on viral electronics," said Seung-Wuk Lee, a scientist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and an associate professor of bioengineering at the University of California, Berkeley. He conducted the study with a team that included Ramamoorthy Ramesh and Lee Byung Yang.

The piezoelectric effect was discovered in the 1880th and since then, it was observed in crystals, ceramics, costumes, proteins and DNA. It is also used a lot in practice. Electric igniters and microscopic scanners could not exist without it, just to mention a few of its applications. However, the materials used for making piezoelectric devices are highly toxic and difficult to work with, which limits the widespread use of this technology.

Bacteriophage M13

Lee and his colleagues wondered whether the virus is being studied in laboratories around the world to offer a better way of solving these problems. Bacteriophage M13 attacks only bacteria, while it is harmless to humans. Since it is a virus, it replicates itself in millions of copies in a few hours, so there is always a constant amount of virus available. It is also very easy to genetically modify the virus. In addition, a large number of such viruses naturally orient themselves in a beautifully decorated films.

These are the properties that scientists are looking for in order to make basic unit in nano technology. However, the researchers first had to determine whether the virus M13 is piezoelectric. Lee and Ramesh, who is an expert in the study of electrical properties of thin films in nano technology, applied the electric field to the film of the virus M13 and watched using special microscope what was happening. Helical proteins that cover viruses were inverted and opened in response to an electric field, which is a sure sign of the piezoelectric effect in action.

Furthermore, scientists have increased the piezoelectric effect of the virus. They have added to viruses four negatively charged amino acid residues at one end of the coil proteins that cover the virus. These residues increased the charge difference between the positive and the negative end of the protein, and that raised the voltage of the virus.

Scientists have further enhanced the system of film composition made of individual layers of the virus. They found that the film composed of 20 single layers showed the strongest piezoelectric effect.

The First Generator

What had left was to make a test. Therefore, scientists have created a piezoelectric power generator based on the virus. Such conditions are created for genetically modified viruses to be spontaneously organized in those multi-layered films that had the size one square centimeter. After that, the film is placed between two golden electrodes that are wired to a liquid crystal display. When pressed on the generator, the electricity of 6 nA and 400 millivolts is produced. That's enough electricity to turn up the number "1" on the screen.

"Now we are working on improvement the results of this demonstration which was supposed to show the correctness of our way of thinking," says Lee. "Because the tools of biotechnology allow mass production of genetically modified viruses, piezoelectric materials based on viruses could offer a simple way to develop new microelectronic devices in the future."

The Environment:

Environmental quality and the degree of its vulnerability directly affect human health, agricultural resources, climate, energy, the economy etc…, and therefore on quality of life and survival. Due to the enormous population growth, technological revolution, the rise of needs for different resources, the collapse of ecosystems across the globe is threatening. A modern society must find the solutions to the increasing destruction of biosphere.

Problems in contemporary society are consisted of many issues:
• How to feed a growing population of people?
• Where to find new sources of energy?
• How to reduce the concentration of CO2 in the biosphere, to preserve clean
water, to purify polluted soil?
• How to find effective antibiotics and other drugs?

One possible answers is the application of biotechnology. Biotechnology is the science that uses natural processes and industrial production in order to achieve certain results. Since 1992, Biotechnology is classified as natural and engineering scientific discipline.

During the biotechnology process, a wide variety of bacteria, viruses, cells and their parts, fungi (micro and macromycetes), cyanobacteria, etc… Biotechnology is widely used in many areas:
• Medicine: antibiotics, vaccines, hormones ...
• Agriculture: Pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, artificial seed ...
• Animal Health: antibiotics, vaccines, growth hormones ...
• Food and drink: milk and milk products, alcoholic beverages, sweeteners ...
• Biologically active molecules: vitamins, amino acids, enzymes ...

Applied Phycology

Applied Phycology is a biotechnology discipline which deals with the application of microalgae and cyanobacteria known as applied algology or applied phycology. Thanks to the great scientific discoveries in the field of microalgae and cyanobacteria, applied phycology provides great possibilities to influence the environment and quality of life.
Microalgae are very diverse group of photoautotroph microscopically small organisms. The basic characteristics of microalgae are the presence of chlorophyll and photosynthesis. There are different types of microalgae: single-cell, colonial, immobile and mobile.

Microalgae – Biodiversity

According to some authors, the number of microalgae species on Earth is between 22,000 and 26,000. Others say from 30,000 to 50,000, and there are even estimates that it ranges up to a few million. Microalgae represent more than 1/3 of the total biomass on Earth. Almost complete phytoplankton in fresh and marine waters are microalgae.

Microalgae belong exclusively to the plant kingdom, except blue-green algae in which the organization of nucleus material and structure has cell wall properties of gram-negative bacteria, and therefore are classified as bacteria (Cyanobacteria). Microalgae and cyanobacteria are characterized by a very rapid cell division and various metabolic pathways, which are caused by changes environment.
In contrast to heterotrophic organisms which usually require complex substrates in order to grow, photoautotrophic algae can grow in conditions with relatively simple composition of mineral salts in the presence of solar light.

Thanks to the aforementioned properties and microalgae and cyanobacteria represent extremely promising organisms for biotechnology. Due to the high biodiversity and rapid development of genetic the engineering, this group of microbes has became one of the most important sources for developing entirely new substances, and products.
The first work on mass cultivation of algae has been published about half century ago. At first, the product was biomass used as a protein feed for livestock and human consumption. Very soon, biomass was applied in chemical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry.

Spirulina

Sprulina is the type of cyanobacteria. Growing interest for the growth and biotechnological application of Spirulina appeared after the Belgian researchers in the last century discovered a massive growth of spirulina in African lakes and its importance in the diet of native people.

The Use of Microalgae and Cyanobacteria

Interest in mass reproduction of microalgae and cyanobacteria is widespread everywhere in the world. It is believed that microalgae and cyanobacterial can possibly be used:
• as food for humans and animals
• in biofertilization of the soil
• soil recultivation and bioremediation
• waste water purification
• production of commercially important products, especially biologically active compounds
• energy production
• reducing global CO2 concentrations, etc…

Analyzing the development of applied phycology can be concluded that in this area, there is inevitably a trinity of science, economics and policy. Policy needs and interest caused higher economic investment in such research. Today, there are huge investments in nutrition projects for the population of the Third World with microalgae and cyanobacteria, with no significant medical research, which at this time is a problem. The question is: Is it acceptable for people to die of hunger to be fed by unexplored products such as the biomass of microalgae and cyanobacteria?

Conclusion

Despite the best efforts to determine the final number of species of microalgae and cyanobacteria that inhabit our planet, this information is still unknown. It is certain that they are a great natural resource, that can be used in various ways (food, medicine, agriculture, remediation, energy ...). Therefore the need for further intensive research in this field is obvious.

Using a new technology that allows scientists to monitor how individual cells react in a complex system of cell signaling, researchers at Stanford University have discovered a large spectrum of differences between cells than ever before noticed.

The Cells Do Not Act in The Same Way

All the cells do not act in the same way as was previously thought. "The cells are like musicians in a jazz band," said dr. Markus Covert, assistant professor of biotechnology and the lead author of a study that was recently published in the journal Nature. His laboratory research studies complex genetic systems. "One little trumpet starts to play, and the cells begin to play by their own rhythm, each different from the others."
So far, most of the scientific information about cell signaling was obtained from populations of cells in large clusters due to the technological limitations of the testing of each individual cell. The new study, which used a recording system developed at Stanford University based on mikrofluidics, shows that scientists are misled by the research based on studies of cell populations.

"Although the results of activation may be the same, process that cells use to achieve this outcome is very different," says the study's author. "Population studies didn’t reveal an intricate network of information that is shown in the single cell level. "It was really surprising," said study co-author Dr.. Stephen Quake, a professor of bioengineering at Stanford, a researcher at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and a leading expert in the field mikrofluidics. "This brings us back to the beginning to understand what's really going on in the cells."

Communication Between The Cells

Cellular signaling controls basic cellular activities and coordinates the activities of the cells in the human body. The ability of cells to properly respond to their environment is the base of development, tissue repair and immunity. A better understanding of how cells communicate with each other could lead to new insights about how biological systems work, and could possibly lead to discovering cures for diseases such as cancer, diabetes and autoimmune disorders that are caused by errors in the process. "What we see is that the differences between cells are important," said Covert. "Even the nuances can play a big role."

The Microfluidic Chip

To achieve the study of reactions of individual cells during the process of cell signaling, Covert’s Laboratory has teamed with Quake’s laboratory. Quake invented the biological equivalent of the integrated circuit - microfluidic chip - which allows the individual researcher to accomplish tasks that once required a dozen scientists work. Three years ago, Rafael Gomez-Sjöberg and Annelle Leyrat, researchers in his lab have developed a microfluidic chip specifically for the study of individual cells. In this study, Quake and Covert used this chip to explore the signaling of inflammatory cells. "This work is a beautiful biological application of microfluidic cell culture and it really illustrates the power of technology," says Quake.

The chip is made of three layers of silicon on the basis of pure elastic material and contains the microscopic equivalent of test tubes, pipettes and Petri dishes. Gate and valves control the flow of fluids. By controlling the flow, the chip performs ten experiments at the same time. This is actually a lab on a chip. "We used a microfluidics platform that could maintain and monitor the 96 cell cultures at the same time," said Covert. "Before that I was doing one at a time. More than a year we were able to study in detail how 5 000 cells responded to stimuli. It took us into a whole new dimension. "

The scientists put mouse fibroblast cells onto the chip and let them grow in the chamber, which is set to inverted microscope. The whole system is computerized and provides long-term response follow-up to the signal in individual cells, making the image every few minutes. For this research Covert, Quake and his colleagues stimulated the cells with different concentrations of proteins that normally causeimmune system response to infection or cancer.

"We found that some cells receive signals and are activated, and some aren’t," said Dr. Savas Tay, a postdoctoral scholar at Stanford University and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the first co-author of the study with graduate student Jacob Hugheyjem. The pictures show the scientists could see that the cells respond in different ways, at different times and the number of oscillations, although their primary response was in many ways the same. "Earlier we were accustomed to look at the cell as if it is a chaotic assemblage of biological material, although there is a great engineering," said Tay. "We had to use mathematical modeling to understand what is happening."

"The cells have performed completely different operations, and we did not notice that," said Covert. Hughey added: "Looking at thousands of individual cells, we were able to characterize in detail how cells interpret different intensities of external stimuli."

The Ebola virus, a member of the viral family Filoviridae, has been known to cause fatal viral hemorrhagic disease in humans and other homid-like primates (chimpanzees and gorillas). Filoviruses have been described as enveloped, non-segmented and negative-stranded RNA viruses divided into two distinct genera: Marburgviruses and Ebolaviruses. Following the biological convention of naming the viruses according to where they are first discovered, Ebolaviruses have been subdivided into four species: Ebola Zaire (ZEBOV), Ebola Ivory Coast (ICEBOV), Ebola Sudan (SEBOV) and Ebola Reston (REBOV) (Hensley, et. al., 2005). Since the virus’ discovery thirty years ago, scientists have learned a great deal about this mysterious and elusive killer. Ebola has managed to keep many of its secrets away from the grasp of researchers further adding to the virus’ mystique. After the tragic events of September 11, 2001, the fear arose that Ebola and other deadly pathogens could be developed and used as bioterroristic weapons agents. The questions that scientists have left to answer are how did this virus emerge, the possibility of the existence of a reservoir host and the reasons for the cyclic emergence of outbreaks. One way to do this is for scientists to retrace the steps of where and when Ebola first made its deadly appearance.

Ever since the Ebola virus was identified as the causative agent of the viral hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in Zaire, Sudan and Ivory Coast, scientists have tried to find Ebola’s reservoir host. They knew that since many of the endemic monkeys and apes were also dying from the same disease that infected humans, monkeys had been ruled out as the reservoir host. Scientists hypothesized that the reservoir host had to be a mammalian species or an arthropod that was able to harbor the virus for a period of time without becoming infected with the disease. A recent survey of small vertebrates during the 2001 and 2003 Gabon outbreaks found evidence of asymptomatic infections of Ebola Zaire in three species of fruit bats: Hypsignathus monstrosus, Epomops franqueti and Myonycteris torquata. All three of these species were found in African regions where human Ebola outbreaks have occurred (Leroy, et.al, 2005). Spleen and liver tissue samples taken from these bats found Ebola Zaire RNA and serum antibody levels in some animals. This data helped to support earlier findings that demonstrated replication and circulation of high titers of Ebola in experimentally infected fruit and insectivorous bats in the absence of illness. It also demonstrated that there was the presence of Ebola Zaire specific Ig-G antibodies in at least 5% of the bat species. These findings supported the theory that bats could be the reservoir host for Ebola. These bats came from both epidemic and non-epidemic regions at the time of the outbreaks, an indication that the virus was circulating in both these areas. In addition there happened to be a 1% decrease in prevalence in all regions during the period of outbreaks, inferring that Ebola Zaire was present in forested countries of Central Africa and would wax and wane. Reasons for these changes could be attributed to possible die-offs in the bat population due to disease or reduced reproduction in sick animals (Groseth, et.al, 2007). Mortality among the great apes from Ebola infection was increased during dry seasons when fruit sources in the forest were scarce, fostering contact among other animals as they competed for food. Immune function among the bat population also changed during these periods in correlation to the food shortage or pregnancy, which can favor viral reproduction. In addition to aggressive behavior among the apes, the instance of viral infections increased. These factors taken together all contributed to the episodic nature of Ebola outbreaks. It is possible that other bat or animal species may play a role in serving as reservoir hosts to Ebola infection. Insight into the behavioral ecology of these particular bat species could be of tremendous help in protecting the great apes from Ebola viral infection. Human infection from Ebola by direct contact with the bats can be countered with education, as the local population living in the outbreak regions has used these animals as food. (Leroy, et.al, 2005).

Scientists conducting these previous studies had a reason to feel a sense of excitement for having finally been able to draw a correlation between a possible reservoir host in regions were outbreaks were more prevalent. However in a recent study, that theory could very well be blown out of the water with the possible discovery of a new strain of an Ebola-like filovirus discovered in Europe. A massive die-off of Schreiber’s bats in caves in France, Spain and Portugal in 2002 prompted scientists to study the carcasses of these bats to try and determine the cause. After analyses of the body fluids and organ tissues taken from these animals it was discovered that the bats had become infected with a possible new strain of Ebola Virus like filovirus, typed Lloviu after the site of the detection, Cueva del Lloviu in Spain. Unlike in the case of Marburg and Ebola where circulation of the virus had been deemed asymptomatic in bats, the Lloviu virus seemed to be pathogenic to them. The bat die-offs in Spain were reported to destroy several bat colonies in less than ten days. It had similarities to an outbreak of ‘white nose syndrome’, a lethal fungal infection that was responsible for recent declines in the North American bat population. Any sudden die-off of a bat population should raise some concern from an ecological standpoint because bats are useful in insect control, plant pollination and seed dissemination. With this recent finding scientists still have not come up with a relationship between the mortality of the bats and the discovery of a novel Ebola-like Lloviu virus in Europe. (Negredo, et. al., 2011)

Human and animal mortality is not always a reliable method of determining the presence of a virus in a region. However, the evidence of the presence of the Ebola virus in bats as well as seasonal changes in the areas the virus was found during outbreaks have enabled scientists to stay on the hunt. With this latest discovery, with the different geographical niches Filoviruses have been found, a look into the diversity of Filoviruses should be an issue to consider.

References
Groseth, A., Feldmann, H., and Strong, J.E., (August, 2007). The ecology of Ebola virus Trends in Microbiology, 15(9), 408-416. Downloaded from Science Direct database on December 18, 2012.

Leroy, E.M., Kumulungui, B., Pourrut, X., Rouquet, P., Hassanin, A., Yaba, P., Delicat, A., Paruseska, J.T., Gonzalez, J., and Swanespoel, R., (2005). Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus, Nature, 438(7068), 575-576. Downloaded from Academic Search Premier on December 18, 2012.

Negredo, A., Palacios, G., Vazquez-Moron, S., Gonzalez, F., Dopazo, H., et. al. (2011) Discovery of an Ebolavirus-like Filovirus in Europe. PLoS Pathogens 7(10), 1-8 doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002304.

Hensley, L.E., Jones, S.M., Feldmann, H., Jahrling, P.B., and Geisbert, T.W. (2005). Ebola and Marburg viruses: pathogenesis and development of countermeasures. Current Molecular Medicine, 5, 761-772. Downloaded from Google Scholar database on December 18, 2012.

Today's technology has progressed and achieved a major breakthrough in the treatment of sensorineural deafness. A system of cochlear implants has been developed, which allows sound remark, even those frequencies that the ear due to damage of certain sensory cells can not hear. This is a significant advantage, unlike current hearing devices which are just audio amplifiers.

Cochlear implant system consists of two parts: external and internal. The external part is a tiny powerful speech processor with accessories and internal part of the inner electrode and the receiver. The outer part consists of a speech processor, microphone and the coil (transmitter) connected via wired connection. Speech processor, the size of a cigarette pack, in general, is powered by standard AA or rechargeable batteries of 1.5 V.

The receiver is surgically placed under the skin behind the ear. Electrodes, connected to the receiver, is surgically implanted into the cochlea and is therefore called implant. Electrode implanted in the cochlea is in contact with the auditory nerve and takes over the role of sensory cells.

Operation

Surgical procedure, which in general is performed only on one ear, last for several hours, and it is done by installing the inner part of cochlear implant. The procedure is performed under general anesthesia, but despite that, it is not particularly difficult for a child. The reasons for the long duration of the operation are the fact that it is a microsurgery of the ear, and the process of checking of the electrode, which is performed during surgery. In rare cases, the operation is performed on both sides, with two cochlear implant systems.

Recovery after surgery is rapid. The wound is reviewed every day until the external stitches are removed, which is usually done seven to ten days after surgery. The exterior part of the system, processor, microphone and transmitter are for the first time placed approximately six weeks after the operation, when its function is assessed for the first time. Then the child is stimulated by the first sound of the new toys, but the path to recognizing the sound takes some time.

The Use and Operation of The Cochlear Implant and Speech Processor

There are also smaller versions of voice processors that are worn behind the ear. Sizes are like standard retroauricular amplifiers. They are not recommended for use in children, given the modest processor programming options and a higher risk of loss and damage.

Microphone is worn behind the ear. Outdoor coil – transmitter, is attached to the magnet and in direct contact with the receiver placed under the skin. Coil and a microphone and associated cables the can be visually hidden using hair.

The System of Wearing The Speech Processor

Speech processor can be worn in different ways. Typically, this is on the belt around the waist. Children wear processor in bag on their back, where is the slightest chance of damage of the device. Another possibility is the vest pocket, located on the back or side above the belt.

Sound is registered by microphone located behind the ear and then transmitted to the speech processor. Sounds are in the processor, with a variety of strategies (programs) analyzed and converted into electrical codes. Coded signals are transmitted through the coil to the receiver placed under the skin. The receiver forwards the information to electrodes implanted in the cochlea. The electrode is in close contact with the hearing nerve, which stimulates by electrical impulses. Through the cochlear nerve, tonal information is already partially processed and transmitted to the central auditory system and the brain areas responsible for hearing. Central auditory system processes sound information received and allows its understanding and practical use. Simply put, the system of cochlear implant allows the children to hear, and the brain to understand what they heard.

Adjustment Process and Rehabilitation

After the surgery, and first speech processor settings, the child is included in the rehabilitation process. It is a time consuming job that requires teamwork of professionals and parents, but it brings great results. With the well-conducted rehabilitation, child begins to understand speech and uses primarily speech to communicate.

During the first year, speech processor automatically adjusts every six to eight weeks, and then less frequently. The goal is to find the best strategy in the speech signal processing in order to provide quality and comfortable listening, and therefore a good understanding.

The Decision of Parents

There are different and conflicting views on cochlear implants - artificial cochlea. Some people tend to emphasize the risk of the surgery and the fact that when installing the electrodes, the remnants of hearing in this ear are completely destroyed. The surgery is, as I have mentioned quite painless and easy to bear, and is now routinely performed (the first was made twenty years ago).

Of course, the cochlear implant is not a solution for everyone. Proposal for the devices will give ENT specialists based on the numerous exams (from tone audiometry and evoked potentials to computed tomography of the inner ear). The parent is the one who must make an effort to gather as much information as needed and decide what is the best for his child. Paths to the implementation of the operation, which is related to the purchase of expensive equipment are complex.

The Goal

Application of genetic engineering in manipulation with plants has opened great perspectives for using plants in the future. The main goal of molecular plant biotechnology is the construction of new varieties of cultivated plants (Transgenic plants), and the development of new plant varieties that give better yield or nutrient power.

Therefore, genetically modified plants which possess resistance to insects, pathogens (primarily on viruses), herbicides, certain stressful environmental conditions, whose fruits rot slowly or plants with altered quality of oil or protein are already designed. In the year 2000, the total area sown with transgenic plants was 44.2 million hectares, and increase comparing to 1999 was 11%.

The transgenic plants are grown in 13 countries worldwide: in the United States (30.3 million hectares), Argentina (10 million hectares), Canada (3 million hectares), China (0.5 million hectares), South Africa, Australia, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Mexico, Romania, Spain and Uruguay. In the year 2000 it is the most planted were transgenic soybeans (25.8 million ha), maize (10.3 million hectares) and cotton (5.3 million hectares).

Transgenic plants tolerant to herbicides were represented with 74%. Transgenic plants resistant to insects were constructed by inserting the Bt gene responsible for synthesis of the protein toxic for insects (Bt toxin), which originates from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. This plant was presented with the 19% of sown land. Data from 2004. are saying that the transgenic plants are grown in 16 countries around the world and cover more than 200 million hectares, and that the majority of transgenic plants are resistant to herbicides.

Impact on The Environment

Since the transgenic plants and the product of human activitiy, and could not be found naturally, studies on following the possible effects of using transgenic plants on the environment where grown. In many countries growing transgenic plants is regulated by rules defined in legislation. That way, it is detected that Bt insecticidal toxin excreted from the roots of transgenic maize after 40 days of cultivation in laboratory conditions, but around the roots of mature corn in the field too, while Bt toxin is not found in the ground on which the transgenic plants of corn were not grown.

Bt Toxin Toxicity

The presence of Bt toxin in the soil can cause the development of harmful insects that are resistant to the Bt toxin. Such cases initiated development of a system for quantitative detection of genetic modifications in corn. But, results of research that followed the breakdown of Bt toxins in different seasons and lasted for 200 days, showed that Bt toxin does not decompose completely in the soil. Far more extensive, 4-year studies of Bt toxin decomposition in corn leftovers in the field, showed that Bt toxin is extremely unstable in those remaining and that a small percent may exist even in firm parts of plants. There are results that when applied in the fields, Bt toxin product in the form of spray, can exist and is active in the soil for 28 months.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil bacteria, which causes the formation of tumors in infected plant by transferring genes located on the plasmid (genes for virulence) in the plant genome, using the information contained in part of plasmids called the T-DNA. Transferred DNA incorporates anywhere in chromosome of the plants. This property A. tumefaciens is used for construction of vectors for plant transformation by genes for virulence being replaced with genes that determine resistance to antibiotics, and with a gene that carries useful properties (eg. herbicide tolerance).

For gene expression, a promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV
35S) is most commonly used. But, A. tumefaciens can enter the body of insects or animals, that feed on infected plants. Therefore, the question arises whether the T-DNA of Agrobacterium can infect animal cells. Experiments in laboratory have shown that this bacterium binds to and can steadily transformed HeLa, neurons, and kidney cells n the culture. It is even noted that the installation of T-DNA in the human cell chromosomes is done by the same mechanism by which this occurs in plant cells. Integrated T-DNA may have a mutagenic effect when incorporated into a chromosome. It is also stated that the viral CaMV 35S promoter is active in human HeLa cells.

Therefore, nowadays, the question of security of using transgenic plants for preparation of food for humans is frequently asked.

There are over 1000 of different diseases that are known to be hereditary. Some occur with the small prevalence in population, and some are more prevalent. The primary task of the research in human molecular genetics is to determine what kind of gene damage is made, and how do they represent the symptoms of the particular genetic disorder.

One of the approaches to the study of hereditary disease is to isolate the defective and normal gene, which allows the comparative analysis of them. In case of the discovery of altered gene that causes the disease, the diagnostic tests can be developed for its precise detection by using molecular biotechnology. Using those tests, it is possible to determine, for example, in the very beginning of the pregnancy whether the child will be born with "healthy" or "sick" genome. In addition to diagnostics, knowledge about changes of DNA can lead to a better understanding of the molecular basis of certain diseases, and therefore to find the best solutions for its treatment.

Cloning of a Normal Gene
Cloning of a normal gene, which is responsible for the altered form the disease can be used to treat the disease, and the level of genetics. Therefore, these procedures are considered under the name “Gene Therapy”. Gene therapy can be performed on cells in culture, which are then returned in patients body (ex vivo gene therapy), or the normal gene is directly inserted into the patients body.

Ex Vivo Gene Therapy

In ex vivo gene therapy, cells obtained from the patient are used, and their genetic defect is corrected by inserting a normal gene. The next step is , the selection of cells with desired characteristics, and such cells are grown in culture in order to be returned to the patient. The advantage of this kind of gene therapy is that it is based on autologous cells which are not rejected by the patient's immune system. However, this method is extremely expensive and it requires a lot of time because every step needs to be done for each patient individually. Therefore, it scientists are working on isolating the cells which would be universal donors, in fact, the cells which would not be rejected by any human organism. One of the strategies for ex vivo gene therapy is based on using smooth muscle cells found in blood vessels. It is possible to return these cells back into the body after small intentionally caused surgical injury on small blood vessels. During the wound healing process the genetically changed cells become part of the tissue.

The advantage of this method is that genetically modified cells are in the contact with circulatory system, and they can secrete desired protein directly into the bloodstream. In addition to genetically determined diseases, there is a possibility for genetic therapy to be used in the treatment of certain types of malignancies.

In Vivo Gene Therapy

For in vivo gene therapy, the methods for inserting healthy genes directly into the patient's tissue with the help of pure plasmid DNA or with the help of some viruses, such as genetically engineered adenovirus or herpes simplex virus. No matter what kind of vector used in gene therapy in vivo, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the vectors are tissue-specific tissue-specific. It is achievable by using viruses which would selectively attack certain tissues, or the gene inserted would be under control of expression signals which can be recognized in target tissues only.

The herpes simplex virus, which infects just nervous cells is the appropriate choice, and that in the near future it could be used to treat patients with neurological disorders.

By using the animal systems, scientists had shown that this type oftherapy is achievable. Numerous experiments have shown that it is possible to insert the plasmid with the cloned gene for the protein dystrophin in the muscle cells of laboratory animals where this gene expressed successfully. That way, the possibility for treatment of Duchene muscle dystrophy is opened.

Yet perhaps, the greatest progress is made in efforts for therapy of malignant brain tumors with the help of retroviral vector system. In tests with experimental animals has been shown that the vector enters only the malignant brain cells, which are then destroyed, and the entire treatment has no effect on healthy brain cells. Because of the great success of this method, the permissions for clinical trials on volunteers with brain tumor are already obtained.

Bearing in mind the contribution of molecular biotechnology to medicine Dr. Francis Collins, director of U.S. National Institute of Human Genome Research gave a prediction of the development for next 40 years. He divided the postgenom era in four phases:

Phase I (5 years):

(a) Rapid acceleration of the development of molecular diagnostic tests,
(b) Identification of molecular subtypes of major human diseases

Phase II (10 years):

(a) Growing number of therapies based on targeted action on the certain molecules in the body,
(b) Defining of pharmacogenomic markers for following patient's response to drugs
© Development of new probes for the visualization of monitoring of bodily functions,
(d) Development of tests for predicting more than 20 genetic disorders that can lead to disease.

Phase III (15 to 20 years):

(a) Testing of different populations development of a database of genotypes,
(b) Design of drugs for diabetes, for high blood pressure, of different types of cancer and other diseases,
© General type of therapy division into subtypes, according to diversity of genotypes,
(d) Full replacement of regenerative medicine (getting oneself tissues out of somatic cells,
(e) Gene replacement in utero and adults.

Phase IV (30 years):

(a) The genes responsible for aging will be determined and will be used in clinics to prolong human life,
(b) Comprehensive health care based on genomics.